It is unlikely that common SNPs in these genes account for a substantial proportion of the genetic risk for schizophrenia, although small effects cannot be ruled out.

Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) and Klotho are secretory proteins that regulate mineral-ion metabolism. Fgf-23−/− or Klotho−/− knockout mice exhibit several pathophysiological processes consistent with premature aging including severe atrophy of tissues. We show that the signal transduction pathways initiated by FGF-23–Klotho prevent tissue atrophy by stimulating proliferation and preventing apoptosis caused by excessive systemic vitamin D. Because serum levels of active vitamin D are greatly increased upon genetic ablation of Fgf-23 or Klotho, we find that these molecules have a dual role in suppression of apoptotic actions of vitamin D through both negative regulation of 1α-hydroxylase expression and phosphoinositide-3 kinase–dependent inhibition of caspase activity. These data provide new insights into the physiological roles of FGF-23 and Klotho.

Hedgehog signaling plays an essential role in patterning of the vertebrate skeleton. Here we demonstrate that conditional inactivation of the Kif3a subunit of the kinesin-2 intraflagellar transport motor in mesenchymal skeletal progenitor cells results in severe patterning defects in the craniofacial area, the formation of split sternum and the development of polydactyly. These deformities are reminiscent of those previously described in mice with deregulated hedgehog signaling. We show that in Kif3a-deficient mesenchymal tissues both the repressor function of Gli3 transcription factor and the activation of the Shh transcriptional targets Ptch and Gli1 are compromised. Quantitative analysis of gene expression demonstrates that the Gli1 transcript level is dramatically reduced, whereas Gli3 expression is not significantly affected by kinesin-2 depletion. However, the motor appears to be required for the efficient cleavage of the full-length Gli3 transcription factor into a repressor form.

Mechanical stress is an important epigenetic factor for regulating skeletal remodeling, and application of force can lead to remodeling of both bone and cartilage. Chondrocytes, osteoblasts and osteoclasts all participate and interact with each other in this remodeling process. To study cellular responses to mechanical stimuli in a system that can be genetically manipulated, we used mouse midpalatal suture expansion in vivo. 6-weeks-old male C57BL/6 mice were subjected to palatal suture expansion by opening loops with an initial force of 0.56N for periods of 1, 3, 7, 14 or 28 days. Periosteal cells in expanding sutures showed increased proliferation, with Ki67 positive cells representing 1.8±0.1% to 4.5±0.4% of total suture cells in control groups and 12.0±2.6% to 19.9±1.2% in experimental/ expansion groups (p<0.05). Starting at day 1, cells expressing alkaline phosphatase and type I collagen were seen. New cartilage and bone formation was observed at the oral edges of the palatal bones at day 7; at the nasal edges only bone formation without cartilage appeared to occur. An increase in osteoclast numbers suggested increased bone remodeling, ranging from 60 to 160% throughout the experimental period. Decreased Saffranin O staining after day 3 suggested decreased proteoglycan content in the secondary cartilage. MicroCT showed a significant increase in maxillary width at days 14 and 28 (from 2334±4μm to 2485±3μm at day 14 and from 2383±5μm to 2574 ±7μm at day 28, p<0.001). The suture width was increased at days 14 and 28, except in the oral third region at day 28 (from 48±5μm to 36±4μm, p<0.05). Bone volume/total volume was significantly reduced at days 14 and 28 (50.2±0.7% vs. 68.0±3.7% and 56.5±1.0%vs. 60.9±1.3%, respectively, p<0.05), indicative of increased bone marrow space. These findings demonstrate that expansion forces across the midpalatal suture promote bone resorption through activation of osteoclasts and bone and cartilage formation via increased proliferation and differentiation of periosteal cells. Mouse midpalatal suture expansion would be useful in further studies of the ability of mineralized tissues to respond to mechanical stimulation.