A large percentage of the world’s languages – anywhere from 50 to 90% – are currently spoken in what we call shift ecologies, situations of unstable bi- or multilingualism where speakers, and in particular younger speakers, do not use their ancestral language but rather speak the majority language. The present paper addresses several interrelated questions with regard to the linguistic effects of bilingualism in such shift ecologies. These language ecologies are dynamic: language choices and preferences change, as do speakers’ proficiency levels. One result is multiple kinds of variation in these endangered language communities. Understanding change and shift requires a methodology for establishing a baseline; descriptive grammars rarely provide information about usage and multilingual language practices. An additional confounder is a range of linguistic variation: regional (dialectal); generational (language-internal change without contact or shift); contact-based (contact with or without shift); and proficiency-based (variation which develops as a result of differing levels of input and usage). Widespread, ongoing language shift today provides opportunities to examine the linguistic changes exhibited by shifting speakers, that is, to zero in on language change and loss in process, rather than as an end product.
This is a response to the commentaries on our epistemological paper, The dynamics of bilingualism in language shift ecologies. The commentaries highlight the challenges in studying language shift ecologies and the competing goals of different research approaches. We hope this set of papers invokes rich discussion about other possible research questions we can ask and the research methodologies we can use to answer them.
The findings of this study relate primarily to the processes of globalization that directly affect linguistic shift and present a threat of extinction to the cultures and languages of the peoples of the world. The article is based on the results of sociolinguistic research conducted in 2021 by the authors in the Eveno-Bytantaiskii National District of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). The aim of the research is to study the linguistic situation of a settlement of Tiugiasirs, where the Sakha, Russian (predominantly), and Even languages all coexist. Sociolinguistic interviews were conducted, aimed at studying the linguistic biography of the informants, determining the degree of language proficiency, and assessing the linguistic situation in the study area. The survey results show that the Even language is undergoing a linguistic shift due to the assimilation of the Even language by the Sakha language.
В последние десятилетия возможности вычислительной техники интенсивно расширяются, её применение ведет научные отрасли по пути прогресса. Исследованием частотности языковых единиц в различных идиомах с акцентом на устную и письменную речь занимается широкий круг лингвистов как в России, так и за её пределами. Фокусируется внимание и на языках коренных малочисленных народов, остающихся неизученными в статистическом аспекте. Настоящее исследование посвящено рассмотрению численного варьирования гласных и согласных фонем в эвенском языке. Проведенное исследование опирается на работу О. Н. Морозовой, С. В. Андросовой и Н. Я. Булатовой «Частотные характеристики фонем в эвенкийском языке: данные пилотного эксперимента» (2019). Актуальность состоит в отсутствии научных работ о численном соотношении вокалических и консонантных фонем в звуковом строе эвенского языка. Научная новизна обусловливается активизацией квантитативного подхода в лингвистических изысканиях для составления определенных матриц, иллюстрирующих те или иные языковые нормы и отклонения. Целью является установление синтагматической частотности гласных и согласных фонем в эвенском языке на материале эвенских нимканов. Нимкан – это один из жанров устного народного творчества эвенов, в котором совмещены урумкун нимкан (миф с элементами сказки) и икэлкэн нимкан (эпическое сказание с песенными диалогами). В соответствии с целью исследования в работе поставлены следующие задачи: транскрибировать орфографические записи эвенских нимканов с помощью символов международного фонетического алфавита, провести синтагматический анализ частотности звуков. При выполнении работы были использованы методы количественных подсчетов и сравнительно-сопоставительного анализа. Материал исследования: тексты эвенских нимканов, записанных в период с 1976 по 2003 гг. В. А. Роббеком, Е. В. Нестеревой, Е. Н. Ивановой и Н. П. Тарабукиным у эвенов села Березовка Среднеколымского района Якутии. Несомненно, устная традиция, как форма передачи информации в поколенческой последовательности, обладает множеством сложных конструкций как в лингвистическом, так и в семиотическом плане. Изучение фольклорного повествования в ракурсе статистики предполагает синтагматический анализ численного варьирования слов или их частей. Основными результатами исследования стали: подтверждение гипотезы о субъективном представлении эвенов относительно вокаличности их языка, выявление синтагматической частотности гласных и согласных звуков по признакам (ряд, подъем, способ и место образования и др.), получение коэффициентов, показывающих разницу между фонемами. Перспектива исследования состоит в парадигматическом рассмотрении частотности гласных и согласных звуков эвенского языка. In recent decades, the possibilities of computer technology have been intensively expanding, and its exploitation leads to progress in scientific fields. The study of the frequency of language units in various idioms, with a focus on spoken and written speech, is being carried out by a wide range of linguists, both in Russia and abroad. The focus is also on the languages of small-numbered indigenous peoples, which remain unstudied from a statistical point of view. The present study deals with the numerical variation of vowel and consonant phonemes in the Even language. The study is based on the work of Olga Morozova, Svetlana Androsova and Nadezhda Bulatova “Frequency characteristics of phonemes in the Even language: data from a pilot experiment” (2019). The relevance lies in the lack of scholarly works on the numerical ratio of vocalic and consonant phonemes in the sound structure of the Even language. The novelty stems from the activation of the quantitative approach in linguistic research to compile certain matrices illustrating certain linguistic norms and deviations. The aim is to establish the syntagmatic frequency of vowel and consonant phonemes in the Even language on the material of Even nimkans. Nimkan is a genre of the Even folk narrative, which combines urumkun nimkan (a myth with fairy tale elements) and ikelken nimkan (an epic tale with song dialogues). In accordance with the aim of the study, the following tasks were set: to transcribe orthographic records of Even nimkans using symbols of the international phonetic alphabet, to conduct a syntagmatic analysis of the frequency of sounds. The methods of quantitative counting and comparative analysis were used in performing the work. The material of the study is the texts of Even nimkans recorded between 1976 and 2003 by Vasiliy Robbek, Elena Nesterova, Elena Ivanova and Nikolay Tarabukin from the Even village of Berezovka (Srednekolymsky district of Yakutia). Undoubtedly, oral tradition, as a form of transmitting information in a generational sequence, has many complex structures both linguistically and semiotically. The study of folklore narrative from a statistical perspective implies a syntagmatic analysis of the numerical variation of words or their parts. The main results of the study are: the confirmation of the hypothesis about the subjective representation of the Even people with regards to vocalization of their language, the identification of syntagmatic frequencies of vowel and consonant sounds by features (row, rise, mode and place of formation, etc.), getting coefficients showing the difference between phonemes. The prospect of the study is a paradigmatic consideration of the frequency of vowel and consonant sounds of the Even language.
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