Pupillary dilation, the light reflex, and spontaneous fluctuations in pupil size have been used as dependent variables in psychological investigations. A review of these studies provides evidence for the effectiveness of the pupil as an index of autonomic activity in psychophysiological research. Methodological problems in the pupillary literature are discussed, and directions for further research are suggested.Changes in pupil size are under the control of two smooth muscles in the iris. The sphincter pupillae, located in the stromal layer, is under cholinergic control, mediated via parasympathetic nerves from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. The dilator pupillae, situated posterior to the constrictor muscle, is innervated by adrenergic fibers originating in the superior sympathetic ganglion. This set of opposing muscles exercises a fine but extensive control over the pupil; pupil diameter can range from 1.5 to more than 9 millimeters in man, and can react to stimulation in as little as .2 seconds (Lowenstein & Loewenfeld, 1962). Although pupillary movements, particularly the light reflex, have been studied for many years, their usefulness as indexes of psychological phenomena has recently begun to attract particular attention among psychologists. The aim of this study is to indicate, by means of a review of the literature, the ways in which pupil size may be employed as a dependent variable in psychological research and to examine some of the difficulties involved.Interest in the pupil as a psychophysiological variable has centered largely on pupillary dilation, and these studies are reviewed first. A few investigations have been con-1 This paper was originally prepared at Bowling Green University. It was supported there in part by MH Grant 13373, awarded to Harold Johnson.2 The author wishes to thank P. Badia and O. Smith for their review and evaluation of an earlier draft of this review. He is particularly indebted to his sponsor, Harold Johnson, for his continued support and helpful criticisms in preparing the final manuscript.Requests for reprints should be sent to Bram C.

This study outlined the development, implementation, and evaluation of an intervention strategy that was designed to improve the technical skill and performance of an international‐level pole vaulter. Intervention, in the form of a prompting and shaping procedure, consisted of breaking a photoelectric beam with the hands at the moment of take‐off. The height of the beam was gradually increased until the vaulter reached maximum arm extension at take‐off. Increase in arm extension was matched by an increase in bar height clearance.

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Although there have been numerous studies documenting a relationship between physical fitness and psychologic functioning, few have employed the type of experimental design that would allow conclusions to be drawn regarding cause and effect. In the present study, college students were randomly assigned to a cardiovascular conditioning program or to a control program designed to give the appearance of physical training while minimizing cardiovascular benefits. Both groups were tested for cardiovascular fitness as well as on a number of self-rating scales before and after the 6-week program. The cardiovascular group demonstrated a significantly greater improvement in cardiovascular fitness than the control group and also tended to show a greater reduction in anxiety and greater increase in measures of general psychologic well-being.

The PSI method of weekly testing with a mastery criterion appears to be sufficient to produce improved learning economically.