Killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) bind self–major histocompatibility complex class I molecules, allowing natural killer (NK) cells to recognize aberrant cells that have down-regulated class I. NK cells express variable numbers and combinations of highly homologous clonally restricted KIR genes, but uniformly express KIR2DL4. We show that NK clones express both 2DL4 alleles and either one or both alleles of the clonally restricted KIR 3DL1 and 3DL2 genes. Despite allele-independent expression, 3DL1 alleles differed in the core promoter by only one or two nucleotides. Allele-specific 3DL1 gene expression correlated with promoter and 5′ gene DNA hypomethylation in NK cells in vitro and in vivo. The DNA methylase inhibitor, 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine, induced KIR DNA hypomethylation and heterogeneous expression of multiple KIR genes. Thus, NK cells use DNA methylation to maintain clonally restricted expression of highly homologous KIR genes and alleles.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a late-onset, multifactorial, neurodegenerative disease of the retina and the leading cause of irreversible vision loss in the elderly in the Western world. We describe here a murine model that combines three known AMD risk factors: advanced age, high fat cholesterol-rich (HF-C) diet, and apolipoprotein E (apoE) genotype. Eyes of aged, targeted replacement mice expressing human apoE2, apoE3, or apoE4 and maintained on a HF-C diet show apoE isoform-dependent pathologies of differential severity. ApoE4 mice are the most severely affected. They develop a constellation of changes that mimic the pathology associated with human AMD. These alterations include diffuse sub-retinal pigment epithelial deposits, drusenoid deposits, thickened Bruch's membrane, and atrophy, hypopigmentation, and hyperpigmentation of the retinal pigment epithelium. In extreme cases, apoE4 mice also develop marked choroidal neovascularization, a hallmark of exudative AMD. Neither age nor HF-C diet alone is sufficient to elicit these changes. We document choroidal neovascularization and other AMD-like ocular pathologies in an animal model that exploits known AMD risk factors. The model is additionally attractive because it is not complicated by invasive experimental intervention. Our findings in this model implicate the human apoE E4 allele as a susceptibility gene for AMD and support the hypothesis that common pathogenic mechanisms may underlie AMD and Alzheimer's disease.amyloid ͉ choroidal neovascularization ͉ macula ͉ retinal pigment epithelium ͉ cholesterol A ge-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of irreversible vision loss in people over the age of 65, accounting for the majority of registered blindness in Western Europe and North America (1). A family of disorders, AMD is characterized by progressive loss of central, high-acuity vision due to dysfunction and death of photoreceptors (PRs) in the center of the retina, the macula. AMD pathology also impacts the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE, the cells responsible for support of PRs and maintenance of the choroidal blood-eye barrier), the choriocapillaris (CC, the primary capillary bed of the choroid), and Bruch's membrane (BrM, a stratified extracellular matrix between the RPE and the CC). Early AMD is characterized by moderate vision loss associated with characteristic extracellular lesions that form between the RPE and BrM. These lesions can be focal (drusen) or diffuse (basal deposits) (2-4). Late AMD is subdivided into two forms, dry or wet. Dry (geographic atrophy) is characterized by PR loss causing severe visual impairment concomitant with extensive RPE atrophy, whereas wet (exudative) features the sequela of choroidal neovascularization (CNV, i.e., in growth of the CC through BrM and under the RPE in the plane of drusen and basal deposits) (5).AMD is a complex disease in which the contributions of many genetic and environmental factors are confounding. The strongest known risk factor for AMD is advanced age, with the ri...

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