SUMMARY 1  INTRODUCTION 1.1  General structure of grains 1.2 Wheat 1.3 Rice 1.4 Maize 1.5 Barley 1.6 Oats 1.7 Rye 1.8 Millet 1.9 Sorghum 1.10 Triticale 1.11 Other grains 1.12 Key points 2 TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF CEREALS 2.1 Cereal production 2.2 Storage 2.3 Processing 2.4 Cereals and food safety 2.5 Key points 3 THE ROLE OF CEREALS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 3.1 History of cereals in diet 3.2 Nutritional value of cereals 3.3 Contribution of cereals and cereal products in the diet 3.4 Cereals in health and disease 3.5 Labelling and health claims 3.6 Consumer understanding 3.7 Key points 4 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS 4.1 Fortification 4.2 Genetic modification 4.3 Gene–nutrient interactions 4.4 Key points 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES GLOSSARY Summary Cereals are the edible seeds or grains of the grass family, Gramineae. A number of cereals are grown in different countries, including rye, oats, barley, maize, triticale, millet and sorghum. On a worldwide basis, wheat and rice are the most important crops, accounting for over 50% of the world's cereal production. All of the cereals share some structural similarities and consist of an embryo (or germ), which contains the genetic material for a new plant, and an endosperm, which is packed with starch grains. After harvest, correct storage of the grain is important to prevent mould spoilage, pest infestation and grain germination. If dry grains are held for only a few months, minimum nutritional changes will take place, but if the grains are held with a higher amount of moisture, the grain quality can deteriorate because of starch degradation by grain and microbial amylases (enzymes). Milling is the main process associated with cereals, although a range of other techniques are also used to produce a variety of products. Slightly different milling processes are used for the various grains, but the process can generally be described as grinding, sifting, separation and regrinding. The final nutrient content of a cereal after milling will depend on the extent to which the outer bran and aleurone layers are removed, as this is where the fibre, vitamins and minerals tend to be concentrated. There is potential for contamination of cereals and cereal products by pests, mycotoxins, rusts and smuts. Recently, acrylamide (described as a probable carcinogen) has been found in starchy baked foods. No link between acrylamide levels in food and cancer risk has been established and based on the evidence to date, the UK Food Standards Agency has advised the public not to change their diet or cooking methods. However, the Scientific Committee on Food of the European Union (EU) has endorsed recommendations made by Food and Agriculture Organisation/World Health Organization which include researching the possibility of reducing levels of acrylamide in food by changes in formulation and processing. Cereals have a long history of use by humans. Cereals are staple foods, and are important sources of nutrients in both developed and developing countries. Cereals and cereal produ...

Epidemiological studies have shown an inverse relationship between risk of CVD and intake of whole grain (WG)-rich food. Regular consumption of breakfast cereals can provide not only an increase in dietary WG but also improvements to cardiovascular health. Various mechanisms have been proposed, including prebiotic modulation of the colonic microbiota. In the present study, the prebiotic activity of a maize-derived WG cereal (WGM) was evaluated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled human feeding study (n 32). For a period of 21 d, healthy men and women, mean age 32 (SD 8) years and BMI 23·3 (SD 0·58) kg/m 2 , consumed either 48 g/d WG cereal (WGM) or 48 g placebo cereal (non-whole grain (NWG)) in a crossover fashion. Faecal samples were collected at five points during the study on days 0, 21, 42, 63 and 84 (representing at baseline, after both treatments and both wash-out periods). Faecal bacteriology was assessed using fluorescence in situ hybridisation with 16S rRNA oligonucleotide probes specific for Bacteroides spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Clostridium histolyticum/perfringens subgroup, Lactobacillus -Enterococcus subgroup and total bacteria. After 21 d consumption of WGM, mean group levels of faecal bifidobacteria increased significantly compared with the control cereal (P¼0·001). After a 3-week wash-out period, bifidobacterial levels returned to pre-intervention levels. No statistically significant changes were observed in serum lipids, glucose or measures of faecal output. In conclusion, this WG maize-enriched breakfast cereal mediated a bifidogenic modulation of the gut microbiota, indicating a possible prebiotic mode of action.Gut microbiota: Breakfast: Cereals: Whole grains: Maize: Prebiotics A diet rich in whole grains (WG) is widely considered to be beneficial; however, WG consumed as breakfast cereals are reported to have a number of additional benefits, including regulation of body weight, decreased risk of type 2 diabetes and an inverse relationship with CVD-specific and total mortality (1 -3) . The gut microbiota is increasingly recognised as a co-evolved microbial partner, complementing and extending human-encoded metabolic capabilities and interacting closely with human diet to mediate host health and disease (4 -7) . Supplementation of the gut with fermentable carbohydrates such as inulin and resistant starch has been shown to decrease the risk of chronic disease, and can be partly attributed to modulation of the gut microbiota via the prebiotic effect (8 -11) . Commercially established prebiotics are often non-digestible oligosaccharides such as fructo-oligosaccharides, inulin and oligofructose, together with emerging prebiotics such as xylo-oligosaccharides and arabinoxylan oligosaccharides. Despite a good safety record in large doses, they can be responsible for gastrointestinal discomfort as tolerance, and side effects can vary widely between individuals (12) . An alternative approach is to use foods that are naturally WG rich which when fermented in vivo possess inherent potential prebi...

Increased whole grain intake has been shown to reduce the risk of many non-communicable diseases. Countries including the USA, Canada, Denmark and Australia have specific dietary guidelines on whole grain intake but others, including the UK, do not. Data from 1986/87 and 2000/01 have shown that whole grain intake is low and declining in British adults. The aim of the present study was to describe whole grain intakes in the most current dietary assessment of UK households using data from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey rolling programme 2008–11. In the present study, 4 d diet diaries were completed by 3073 individuals between 2008 and 2011, along with details of socio-economic status (SES). The median daily whole grain intake, calculated for each individual on a dry weight basis, was 20 g/d for adults and 13 g/d for children/teenagers. The corresponding energy-adjusted whole grain intake was 27 g/10 MJ per d for adults and 20 g/10 MJ per d for children/teenagers. Whole grain intake (absolute and energy-adjusted) increased with age, but was lowest in teenagers (13–17 years) and younger adults up to the age of 34 years. Of the total study population, 18 % of adults and 15 % of children/teenagers did not consume any whole-grain foods. Individuals from lower SES groups had a significantly lower whole grain intake than those from more advantaged classifications. The whole grain intake in the UK, although higher than in 2000/01, remains low and below that in the US and Danish recommendations in all age classes. Favourable pricing with increased availability of whole-grain foods and education may help to increase whole grain intake in countries without whole-grain recommendations. Teenagers and younger adults may need targeting to help increase whole grain consumption.

Epidemiological evidence suggests an inverse association between whole grain consumption and the risk of non-communicable diseases, such as CVD, type 2 diabetes, obesity and some cancers. A recent analysis of the National Diet and Nutrition Survey rolling programme (NDNS-RP) has shown lower intake of whole grain in the UK. It is important to understand whether the health benefits associated with whole grain intake are present at low levels of consumption. The present study aimed to investigate the association of whole grain intake with intakes of other foods, nutrients and markers of health (anthropometric and blood measures) in the NDNS-RP 2008–11, a representative dietary survey of UK households. A 4-d diet diary was completed by 3073 individuals. Anthropometric measures, blood pressure levels, and blood and urine samples were collected after diary completion. Individual whole grain intake was calculated with consumers categorised into tertiles of intake. Higher intake of whole grain was associated with significantly decreased leucocyte counts. Significantly higher concentrations of C-reactive protein were seen in adults in the lowest tertile of whole grain intake. No associations with the remaining health markers were seen, after adjustments for sex and age. Over 70 % of this population did not consume the minimum recommend intake associated with disease risk reduction, which may explain small variation across health markers. Nutrient intakes in consumers compared with non-consumers were closer to dietary reference values, such as higher intakes of fibre, Mg and Fe, and lower intakes of Na, suggesting that higher intake of whole grain is associated with improved diet quality.

Summary  Oilseeds, such as soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed (canola), sunflower seed and peanut, are annual plants (O’Brien et al. 2000). They are the largest source of vegetable oils even though most oil‐bearing tree fruits provide the highest oil yields (e.g. olive, coconut and palm trees) (Gunstone 2002). Oilseeds are also used in animal feed because of their high protein content. Their seeds contain energy for the sprouting embryo mainly as oil, compared with cereals, which contains the energy in the form of starch (Lucas 2000). This article reviews the main types of oilseeds; their production and processing into oil. It focuses on the role of oilseeds and their by‐products in human health and disease, and highlights new developments that may provide even more benefits for health in the future.