SUMMARY Depending on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress levels, the ER transmembrane multi-domain protein IRE1α promotes either adaptation or apoptosis. Unfolded ER proteins cause IRE1α lumenal domain homo-oligomerization, inducing trans auto-phosphorylation that further drives homo-oligomerization of its cytosolic kinase/ endoribonuclease (RNase) domains to activate mRNA splicing of adaptive XBP1 transcription factor. However, under high/chronic ER stress, IRE1α surpasses an oligomerization threshold that expands RNase substrate repertoire to many ER-localized mRNAs, leading to apoptosis. To modulate these effects, we developed ATP-competitive IRE1α Kinase Inhibiting RNase Attenuators—KIRAs—that allosterically inhibit IRE1α’s RNase by breaking oligomers. One optimized KIRA, KIRA6, inhibits IRE1α in vivo and promotes cell survival under ER stress. Intravitreally, KIRA6 preserves photoreceptor functional viability in rat models of ER stress-induced retinal degeneration. Systemically, KIRA6 preserves pancreatic β-cells, increases insulin, and reduces hyperglycemia in Akita diabetic mice. Thus, IRE1α powerfully controls cell fate, but can itself be controlled with small molecules to reduce cell degeneration.

Under endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, unfolded proteins accumulate in the ER to activate the ER transmembrane kinase/endoribonuclease (RNase)—IRE1α. IRE1α oligomerizes, autophosphorylates, and initiates splicing of XBP1 mRNA, thus triggering the unfolded protein response (UPR). Here we show that IRE1α’s kinase-controlled RNase can be regulated in two distinct modes with kinase inhibitors: one class of ligands occupy IRE1α’s kinase ATP-binding site to activate RNase-mediated XBP1 mRNA splicing even without upstream ER stress, while a second class can inhibit the RNase through the same ATP-binding site, even under ER stress. Thus, alternative kinase conformations stabilized by distinct classes of ATP-competitive inhibitors can cause allosteric switching of IRE1α’s RNase—either on or off. As dysregulation of the UPR has been implicated in a variety of cell degenerative and neoplastic disorders, small molecule control over IRE1α should advance efforts to understand the UPR’s role in pathophysiology and to develop drugs for ER stress-related diseases.

The protozoans Cryptosporidium parvum and Toxoplasma gondii are parasites of major health concern to humans. Both parasites contain a group of calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs), which are found in plants and ciliates but not in humans or fungi. Here we describe a series of potent inhibitors that target CDPK1 in C. parvum (CpCDPK1) and T. gondii (TgCDPK1). These inhibitors are highly selective for CpCDPK1 and TgCDPK1 over the mammalian kinases SRC and ABL. Furthermore, they are able to block an early stage of C. parvum invasion of HCT-8 host cells, which is similar to their effects on T. gondii invasion of human fibroblasts.

Toxoplasmosis is a disease of prominent health concern that is caused by the protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii. Proliferation of T. gondii is dependent on its ability to invade host cells, which is mediated, in part, by calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (CDPK1). We have developed ATP competitive inhibitors of TgCDPK1 that block invasion of parasites into host cells, preventing their proliferation. The presence of a unique glycine gatekeeper residue in TgCDPK1 permits selective inhibition of the parasite enzyme over human kinases. These potent TgCDPK1 inhibitors do not inhibit the growth of human cell lines and represent promising candidates as toxoplasmosis therapeutics.