The camel milk trade in Kenya has evolved significantly from a small-scale business undertaken in local villages to its current status involving a large number of different stakeholders supplying urban towns, particularly Nairobi City. Despite the evident growth pattern, the supply of camel milk to Nairobi has largely remained informal, with minimal enforcement of regulations. The aim of this study was to characterise the camel milk system supplying Nairobi and assess its governance, main challenges and the potential food safety risk practices.A value chain analysis framework was used to carry out data collection between August 2014 and July 2015. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews with stakeholders operating in different nodes of the value chains.Three milk value chains supplying Nairobi were identified and mapped: the Isiolo chain, the Kajiado chain and the camel milk processing company chain. Overall, the results indicate that 94% of the milk supplied to Nairobi city is informally traded (traded without any effective regulation), while 6% originates from a formal milk processing company. In the informal chains, milk traders (mostly women) were reported to play a pivotal role in the organisation and daily functioning of the chains. The processing company had partly integrated activities and reported exporting 5% of their products to regional and international markets.Food safety themes identified were associated with i) lack of cold chain, ii) gaps in hygiene practices, particularly at farm and market levels, iii) consumption of raw camel milk, and iv) lack of food safety training, among other issues. Low level involvement by government agencies in enforcing stipulated food safety measures were reported in the informal chains, as these concentrate efforts in the regulation of dairy milk chains. Isiolo milk traders were identified as the dominant group, setting milk prices and providing sanctions.The framework and findings obtained can help future research and policy makers to reach informed decision about what to regulate, where to target and importantly how to make the camel milk value chain more efficient and safer.

Kala-azar is a parasitic disease caused by Leishmania species transmitted by sand fly. In Kenya, kala-azar is endemic in thirty subcounties spread over in eleven counties in the arid zones. Climate change-influenced seasonal weather variability and environmental alterations remain important determinants of many vector-borne diseases. The present study focused on climate change and environmental influence on kala-azar in West Pokot. A descriptive cross-sectional and retrospective research design was adapted. Study area was purposively selected. Locations were randomly selected, and households were systematically selected. Three hundred sixty-three household questionnaires, eleven key informant interviews, and five focus group discussions were undertaken. Secondary data were obtained from Kacheliba subcounty hospital records. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 24 was used to analyze quantitative data while qualitative data were analyzed to establish connection for interpretation. Kala-azar cases have been on the rise on aggregate and surge towards the end of dry season and just after the rains. Significant environmental factors included the presence of seasonal rain water pathways and rock piles around houses (AOR = 4.7; 95% CI = (2.3-9.6), p < 0.05 ), presence of acacia trees in and around homesteads (AOR = 8.5; 95% CI = (2.5-28.6), p < 0.05 ), presence of anthills around the homesteads (AOR = 5.2; 95% CI = (1.2-23.4), p < 0.05 ), and presence of animal shed within compound (AOR = 2.8; 95% CI = (0.96-8), p < 0.05 ). Climate change-induced seasonal weather variability, increased temperature and reduced precipitation as well as environmental alterations influence kala-azar occurrence in West Pokot. Community sensitization on disease prevalence, clearing of vector predilection sites, and improving community environmental risk perception are imperative to promote prevention.

Kala-azar is a parasitic disease caused by Leishmania species transmitted by sand fly. In Kenya, kala-azar is endemic in thirty sub-counties spread over in eleven counties in the arid zones. Climate change-influenced seasonal weather variability and environmental alterations remain important determinants of many vector-borne diseases. The present study focused on climate change and environmental influence on kala-azar in West Pokot. Descriptive cross-sectional and retrospective research design was adapted. Study area was purposively selected. Locations and villages were randomly selected, while households were systematically selected. Three hundred sixty three household questionnaires, eleven key informant interviews, and five focus group discussions were undertaken. Secondary data was obtained from Kacheliba sub-county hospital records. Statistical package for social science version 24 was used to analyze quantitative data while NVivo software was used to analyse qualitative data. Kala-azar cases have been on the rise on aggregate from 2010 to 2020, 400 to 500 annual average cases, and incident rate tends to surge during dry season and just after the rains when humidity is high and temperature variations are wide. Significant environmental characteristics associated with risk of kala-azar infection included: presences of seasonal rain water pathways and rock piles around houses (X2= 30.706, df=1, p<0.001); presence of acacia trees in and around homesteads (X2=21.404, df=1, p<0.001); presence of dumping site (X2=9.641, df=1, p=0.002); presence of anthills around the homesteads (X2=16.538, df=1, p<0.001); presence of animal shed (X2=4.290, df=1, p=0.038); presences of chicken shelter (X2=36.862, df=1, p<0.001); and practices of frequently moving houses to new temporary compound (X2=20.919, df=1, p<0.001). Climate change-induced seasonal weather variability; increased temperature and reduced precipitation and environmental alterations remain significant predictors of kala-azar in West Pokot. Community sensitization on disease prevalence, clearing of vector predilection sites and improving community environmental risk perception are imperative to promote prevention and reduce disease burden.Brief summaryClimate change and environmental alteration influence on vector-borne diseases is getting stronger as ever increasing global temperatures and human activity-induced environmental changes remain key drivers of vector expansion and disease re-emergence. In Kenya, kala-azar cases are on an increasing trend as annual incidents surpassed 1,500 with a growing list of over eleven endemic counties. The present study used household questionnaire, interrogated surrounding environment using observation checklist and delved into Kacheliba hospital records. Risk of kala-azar was significant in association with presence of seasonal water pathways, presence of acacia trees, anthills, cattle & goat and chicken shelters around houses. On aggregate, kala-azar incident rate was increasing from 2010 to 2020, and cases tend to surge towards end of first and start of last quarter annually. These surge periods coincide with dry season and just after rains in the area when the humidity is high. Apparently during the last 10 years there seems reduced precipitation and increase temperature. Interestingly, increased in temperature and reduced precipitation was associated with increased reported Kala-zar cases. Policy makers and concerned agencies should consider promoting preventive behaviors, increasing community risk perception and eliminating vector-harboring structures around houses, while observing environmental conservation as a disease mitigation strategy.