With the rapid advances being made in novel high-energy ion-beam techniques such as proton beam writing, single-ion-event effects, ion-beam-radiation therapy, ion-induced fluorescence imaging, proton/ion microscopy, and ion-induced electron imaging, it is becoming increasingly important to understand the spatial energydeposition profiles of energetic ions as they penetrate matter. In this work we present the results of comprehensive yet straightforward event-by-event Monte Carlo calculations that simulate ion/electron propagation and secondary electron ͑␦ ray͒ generation to yield spatial energy-deposition data. These calculations combine SRIM/TRIM features, EEDL97 data and volume-plasmon-localization models with a modified version of one of the newer ␦ ray generation models, namely, the Hansen-Kocbach-Stolterfoht. The development of the computer code DEEP ͑deposition of energy due to electrons and protons͒ offers a unique means of studying the energy-deposition/redistribution problem while still retaining the important stochastic nature inherent in these processes which cannot be achieved with analytical modeling. As an example of an application of DEEP we present results that compare the energy-deposition profiles of primary MeV protons and primary keV electrons in polymethymethacrylate. Such data are important when comparing proximity effects in the direct write lithography processes of proton-beam writing and electron-beam writing. Our calculations demonstrate that protons are able to maintain highly compact spatial energy-deposition profiles compared with electrons.

Biofuels are fast advancing as a new research area to provide alternative sources of sustainable and clean energy. Recent advances in nanotechnology have sought to improve the efficiency of biofuel production, enhancing energy security. In this study, we have incorporated iron oxide nanoparticles into single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) to produce magnetic single-walled carbon nanotubes (mSWCNTs). Our objective is to bridge both nanotechnology and biofuel production by immobilizing the enzyme, Amyloglucosidase (AMG), onto mSWCNTs using physical adsorption and covalent immobilization, with the aim of recycling the immobilized enzyme, toward useful applications in biofuel production processes. We have demonstrated that the enzyme retains a certain percentage of its catalytic efficiency (up to 40%) in starch prototype biomass hydrolysis when used repeatedly (up to ten cycles) after immobilization on mSWCNTs, since the nanotubes can be easily separated from the reaction mixture using a simple magnet. The enzyme loading, activity, and structural changes after immobilization onto mSWCNTs were also studied. In addition, we have demonstrated that the immobilized enzyme retains its activity when stored at 4 °C for at least one month. These results, combined with the unique intrinsic properties of the nanotubes, pave the way for greater efficiency in carbon nanotube-enzyme bioreactors and reduced capital costs in industrial enzyme systems.

Observations of the interior structure of cells and subcellular organelles are important steps in unraveling organelle functions. Microscopy using helium ions can play a major role in both surface and subcellular imaging because it can provide subnanometer resolutions at the cell surface for slow helium ions, and fast helium ions can penetrate cells without a significant loss of resolution. Slow (e.g., 10-50 keV) helium ion beams can now be focused to subnanometer dimensions (∼0.25 nm), and keV helium ion microscopy can be used to image the surfaces of cells at high resolutions. Because of the ease of neutralizing the sample charge using a flood electron beam, surface charging effects are minimal and therefore cell surfaces can be imaged without the need for a conducting metallic coating. Fast (MeV) helium ions maintain a straight path as they pass through a cell. Along the ion trajectory, the helium ion undergoes multiple electron collisions, and for each collision a small amount of energy is lost to the scattered electron. By measuring the total energy loss of each MeV helium ion as it passes through the cell, we can construct an energy-loss image that is representative of the mass distribution of the cell. This work paves the way to use ions for whole-cell investigations at nanometer resolutions through structural, elemental (via nuclear elastic backscattering), and fluorescence (via ion induced fluorescence) imaging.

Increasing interest in the use of nanoparticles (NPs) to elucidate the function of nanometer-sized assemblies of macromolecules and organelles within cells, and to develop biomedical applications such as drug delivery, labeling, diagnostic sensing, and heat treatment of cancer cells has prompted investigations into novel techniques that can image NPs within whole cells and tissue at high resolution. Using fast ions focused to nanodimensions, we show that gold NPs (AuNPs) inside whole cells can be imaged at high resolution, and the precise location of the particles and the number of particles can be quantified. High-resolution density information of the cell can be generated using scanning transmission ion microscopy, enhanced contrast for AuNPs can be achieved using forward scattering transmission ion microscopy, and depth information can be generated from elastically backscattered ions (Rutherford backscattering spectrometry). These techniques and associated instrumentation are at an early stage of technical development, but we believe there are no physical constraints that will prevent whole-cell three-dimensional imaging at <10 nm resolution.

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