This historical and conceptual overview of riparian ecosystem restoration discusses how riparian ecosystems have been defined, describes the hydrologic, geomorphic, and biotic processes that create and maintain riparian ecosystems of the western USA, identifies the main types of anthropogenic disturbances occurring in these ecosystems, and provides an overview of restoration methods for each disturbance type. We suggest that riparian ecosystems consist of two zones: Zone I occupies the active floodplain and is frequently inundated and Zone I1 extends from the active floodplain to the valley wall. Successful restoration depends on understanding the physical and biological processes that influence natural riparian ecosystems and the types of disturbance that have degraded riparian areas. Thus we recommend adopting a process-based approach for riparian restoration. Disturbances to riparian ecosystems in the western USA result from streamflow modifications by dams, reservoirs, and diversions; stream channelization; direct modification of the riparian ecosystem; and watershed disturbances. Four topics should be addressed to advance

An annual snow‐soil simulator for arctic tundra was developed by using coupled models of surface equilibrium temperature and substrate thermal diffusion. Snow ripening, melt, and accumulation are modeled in the simulator which is forced with daily weather data. The simulator predicts that a snow fence array capable of producing drift deeper than 4.2 m will initiate permanent snowfield at Barrow, Alaska. Such a man‐induced snowfield could serve as a reliable source of freshwater for Barrow and similar villages in the north slope region of Alaska. Further analysis indicated that albedo reduction due to dust fall, snow removal, etc., is dominant over aerodynamic effects in producing the early spring meltout observed at Barrow Village.

This historical and conceptual overview of riparian ecosystem restoration discusses how riparian ecosystems have been defined, describes the hydrologic, geomorphic, and biotic processes that create and maintain riparian ecosystems of the western USA, identifies the main types of anthropogenic disturbances occurring in these ecosystems, and provides an overview of restoration methods for each disturbance type. We suggest that riparian ecosystems consist of two zones; Zone I occupies the active floodplain and is frequently inundated and Zone II extends from the active floodplain to the valley wall. Successful restoration depends on understanding the physical and biological processes that influence natural riparian ecosystems and the types of disturbance that have degraded riparian areas. Thus we recommend adopting a process-based approach for riparian restoration. Disturbances to riparian ecosystems in the western USA result from streamflow modifications by dams, reservoirs, and diversions; stream channelization; direct modification of the riparian ecosystem; and watershed disturbances. Four topics should be addressed to advance the state of science for restoration of riparian ecosystems: (1) interdisciplinary approaches, (2) a unified framework, {3) a better understanding of fundamental riparian ecosystem processes, and (4) restoration potential more closely related to disturbance type. Three issues should be considered regarding the cause of the degraded environment: (1) the location of the causative disturbance with respect to the degraded riparian area, (2) whether the disturbance is ongoing or can be eliminated, and (3) whether or not recovery will occur naturally if the disturbance is removed. DECEMBER 1997 RestorationRi'storatioti Ecology DECEMBER 1997

Barriers to app installation impede device longevity.• Relatively few apps could be downloaded directly onto a vintage device.• Many apps could be downloaded indirectly.• 61.3% of apps (downloaded directly or indirectly) were capable of functioning.

With the increase of smartphone ownership year by year, the accessibility of mobile application increases too. Application sideloading is a behaviour identified as the act of installing applications through unofficial means. Moreover, sideloading as a study is insufficiently researched in relation to its occurrence in smartphone usage. This position paper describes sideloading behaviour in context to accessibility, interaction, security, problematic smartphone uses and its occurrences in other devices. The research aims to identify those who sideload, the causes of sideloading and the behavioural differences dependent on the device used with a future intention of reviving and highlighting this field of research.