Defining hope as a cognitive set that is composed of a reciprocally derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal-directed determination) and (b) pathways (planning of ways to meet goals), an individual-differences measure is developed. Studies demonstrate acceptable internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and the factor structure identifies the agency and pathways components of the Hope Scale. Convergent and discriminant validity are documented, along with evidence suggesting that Hope Scale scores augmented the prediction of goal-related activities and coping strategies beyond other self-report measures. Construct validational support is provided in regard to predicted goal-setting behaviors; moreover, the hypothesized goal appraisal processes that accompany the various levels of hope are corroborated. The importance of hope has long been recognized. In Western culture, the concept of hope was first elaborated in the myth of Pandora. As the story goes, Zeus was angry at Prometheus for stealing fire from the gods. With revenge in mind, Zeus sent Pandora to earth with a box full of evil creatures. Zeus told Pandora not to open the box, yet he knew that her curiosity would soon overwhelm her. As predicted, Pandora eventually opened the lid to look inside. When she did, a swarm of creatures flew out to forever plague humankind: gout, rheumatism, and colic for the body; envy, spite, and revenge for the mind. Only one creature remained in the box when Pandora finally managed to close the lid. That creature was hope, which supposedly makes human cares and troubles seem bearable as we journey toward the myriad of goals in a lifetime (Smith, 1983). Although the Pandora myth extols hope, other writings have characterized it as both a blessing and a curse. Tillich (1965) summarized this view by asserting that "hope is easy for the foolish, but hard for the wise. Everybody can lose himself into The present article is based, in part, on dissertations by Cheri Harris and John R. Anderson, as well as on master's theses by Lauren Yoshinobu, Charyle Langelle, and Pat Harney, all under the supervision of C. R. Snyder at the University of Kansas, and on a master's thesis in progress by June Gibb at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign under the supervision of C. R. Snyder.

Vannette, D. (2017). Using attention checks in your surveys may harm data quality. https://www.qualtrics.com/blog/using-attention-checks-in-yoursurveys-may-harm-data-quality/ Van Orden, K. A., Cukrowicz, K. C., Witte, T. K., & Joiner, T. E. ( 2012).Thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness: Construct validity and psychometric properties of the Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire.

SUMMARYDetection of a visual signal requires information to reach a system capable of eliciting arbitrary responses required by the experimenter. Detection latencies are reduced when subjects receive a cue that indicates where in the visual field the signal will occur. This shift in efficiency appears to be due to an alignment (orienting) of the central attentional system with the pathways to be activated by the visual input.It would also be possible to describe these results as being due to a reduced criterion at the expected target position. However, this description ignores important constraints about the way in which expectancy improves performance. First, when subjects are cued on each trial, they show stronger expectancy effects than when a probable position is held constant for a block, indicating the active nature of the expectancy. Second, while information on spatial position improves performance, information on the form of the stimulus does not. Third, expectancy may lead to improvements in latency without a reduction in accuracy. Fourth, there appears to be little ability to lower the criterion at two positions that are not spatially contiguous.A framework involving the employment of a limited-capacity attentional mechanism seems to capture these constraints better than the more general language of criterion setting. Using this framework, we find that attention shifts are not closely related to the saccadic eye movement system. For luminance detection the retina appears to be equipotential with respect to attention shifts, since costs to unexpected stimuli are similar whether foveal or peripheral. These results appear to provide an important model system for the study of the relationship between attention and the structure of the visual system.Detecting the presence of a clear signal controlling our awareness of environmental in an otherwise noise-free environment is events. Although there are a number of emprobably the simplest perceptual act of which pirical approaches to the study of detection, the human is capable. For this reason it may most have not clearly separated between atserve as an ideal model task for investigating tentional factors and sensory factors and are the role of sensory and attentional factors in thus incapable of providing an analysis of the relationship between the two. The classical psychophysical approach to the use of University of Oregon. Portions of the data were near-threshold signals (e.g., Hecht, Schlaer, adapted from Chronometrk Explorations of Mind & Pirenne, 1942). This approach has been (Posner, 1978). Parts of these experiments were concerned with such stimulus factors as inrdllV 116 Psychonomk Society> November tensity, duration, wavelength, and sensory Reqests for reprints should be sent to Michael I. organismic factors such as the degree of dark Posner, Psychology Department, University of Ore-adaptation, retinal position of the stimulus, gon, Eugene, Oregon 97403. and so on. Evidence that a signal has been

Defining hope as a cognitive set comprising agency (belief in one's capacity to initiate and sustain actions) and pathways (belief in one's capacity to generate routes) to reach goals, the Hope Scale was developed and validated previously as a dispositional self-report measure of hope (Snyder et al., 1991). The present 4 studies were designed to develop and validate a measure of state hope. The 6-item State Hope Scale is internally consistent and reflects the theorized agency and pathways components. The relationships of the State Hope Scale to other measures demonstrate concurrent and discriminant validity; moreover, the scale is responsive to events in the lives of people as evidenced by data gathered through both correlational and causal designs. The State Hope Scale offers a brief, internally consistent, and valid self-report measure of ongoing goal-directed thinking that may be useful to researchers and applied professionals.

Six studies regarding forgiveness are presented. The Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS), a self-report measure of dispositional forgiveness (with subscales to assess forgiveness of self, others, and situations) was developed and demonstrated good psychometric properties. Forgiveness correlated positively with cognitive flexibility, positive affect, and distraction; it correlated negatively with rumination, vengeance, and hostility. Forgiveness predicted four components of psychological well-being (anger, anxiety, depression, and satisfaction with life); forgiveness of situations accounted for unique variance in these components of psychological well-being. Forgiveness and hostility demonstrated equivalent, inverse associations with relationship duration, and forgiveness accounted for unique variance in relationship satisfaction, even when controlling for trust. Forgiveness level correlated positively with decreased negativity in statements written about transgressions in the present versus the past tense.