The velvet antler is a unique model for cancer and regeneration research due to its periodic regeneration and rapid growth. Antler growth is mainly triggered by the growth center located in its tip, which consists of velvet skin, mesenchyme and cartilage. Among them, cartilage accounts for most of the growth center. We performed an integrative analysis of the antler cartilage transcriptome and proteome at different antler growth stages. RNA-seq results revealed 24,778 unigenes, 19,243 known protein-coding genes, and 5535 new predicted genes. Of these, 2722 were detected with differential expression patterns among 30 d, 60 d, and 90 d libraries, and 488 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened at 30 d vs. 60 d and 60 d vs. 90 d but not at 30 d vs. 90 d. Proteomic data identified 1361 known proteins and 179 predicted novel proteins. Comparative analyses showed 382 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), of which 16 had differential expression levels at 30 d vs. 60 d and 60 d vs. 90 d but not at 30 d vs. 90 d. An integrated analysis conducted for DEGs and DEPs showed that gene13546 and its coding protein protein13546 annotated in the Wnt signaling pathway may possess important bio-logical functions in rapid antler growth. This study provides in-depth characterization of candidate genes and proteins, providing further insights into the molecular mechanisms controlling antler development.

A significant variety of cell growth factors are involved in the regulation of antler growth, and the fast proliferation and differentiation of various tissue cells occur during the yearly regeneration of deer antlers. The unique development process of velvet antlers has potential application value in many fields of biomedical research. Among them, the nature of cartilage tissue and the rapid growth and development process make deer antler a model for studying cartilage tissue development or rapid repair of damage. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the rapid growth of antlers are still not well studied. MicroRNAs are ubiquitous in animals and have a wide range of biological functions. In this study, we used high-throughput sequencing technology to analyze the miRNA expression patterns of antler growth centers at three distinct growth phases, 30, 60, and 90 days following the abscission of the antler base, in order to determine the regulatory function of miRNA on the rapid growth of antlers. Then, we identified the miRNAs that were differentially expressed at various growth stages and annotated the functions of their target genes. The results showed that 4319, 4640, and 4520 miRNAs were found in antler growth centers during the three growth periods. To further identify the essential miRNAs that could regulate fast antler development, five differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) were screened, and the functions of their target genes were annotated. The results of KEGG pathway annotation revealed that the target genes of the five DEMs were significantly annotated to the “Wnt signaling pathway”, “PI3K-Akt signaling pathway”, “MAPK signaling pathway”, and “TGF-β signaling pathway”, which were associated with the rapid growth of velvet antlers. Therefore, the five chosen miRNAs, particularly ppy-miR-1, mmu-miR-200b-3p, and novel miR-94, may play crucial roles in rapid antler growth in summer.

Gut microbiota is the largest and most complex micro-ecosystem in animals, influenced by the host’s dietary habits and living environment, and its composition and diversity play irreplaceable roles in animal nutrient metabolism, immunity, and adaptation to the environment. Nevertheless, the composition of Gansu red deer (Cervus elaphusKansuensis) gut bacteria is not known. In this study, the composition and diversity of gut microbiome and fecal metabolomics of C. elaphusKansuensis were identified and compared for the first time using 16S-rRNA gene sequencing, metagenomic sequencing and a combination of untargeted liquid chromatogram-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). There were significant differences in gut microbiota structure and diversity between wild and farmed C. elaphusKansuensis. At the genus level, UCRD-005 was dominant in both captive red deer (CRD) and wild red deer (WRD), andBacteroidales_RF16_group was dominant in CRD, whereas Bacillus was dominant in WRD. Metagenomic sequencing showed similar results to 16s rRNA sequencing for gut microbiota in CRD and WRD at the phylum and genus levels. 16S rRNA sequencing and metagenomic datasuggested that Bacteroides and Bacillusmight serve as a marker microbiota for both CRD and WRD. LC-MS/MS results showed that 520 significantly different metabolites were detected between CRD and WRD and most differential metabolites were involved in lipid metabolism. The results suggest that the large differences in gut microbiota composition and fecal metabolites between CRD and WRD may be due to the fact that different diet habits and living environments over time have developed their own stable gut microbiome characteristics to meet their respective survival and reproduction needs.