Pro-inflammatory CD4+ T helper (Th) cells drive the pathogenesis of many autoimmune conditions. Recent advances have modified views of the phenotype of pro-inflammatory Th cells in autoimmunity, extending the breadth of known Th cell subsets that operate as drivers of these responses. Heterogeneity and plasticity within Th1 and Th17 cells, and the discovery of subsets of Th cells dedicated to production of other pro-inflammatory cytokines such as GM-CSF have led to these advances. Here, we review recent progress in this area and focus specifically upon evidence for chemokine receptors that drive recruitment of these various pro-inflammatory Th cell subsets to sites of autoimmune inflammation in the CNS. We discuss expression of specific chemokine receptors by subsets of pro-inflammatory Th cells and highlight which receptors may be tractable targets of therapeutic interventions to limit pathogenic Th cell recruitment in autoimmunity.

Objective To determine the prevalence of positive allergen reactions in intradermal and IgE serological tests in dogs presenting to a dermatology referral centre in South Australia and the clinical efficacy of subsequent allergen-specific immunotherapy.Design Retrospective study.Methods Results from 108 intradermal allergy tests, 25 IgE serological assays and immunotherapy outcomes in 37 dogs were retrospectively analysed. Immunotherapy outcomes were determined as excellent, good, modest or failure using a global assessment of efficacy matrix which incorporated pruritus scores, lesion severity, medication requirements, and owner and clinician opinion. ResultsThe most common positive reactions in intradermal allergy tests were Red clover (59%), Dermatophagoides farinae (29%), Tyrophagus putrescentiae (28%), Yellow dock (25%) and Malassezia pachydermatis (24%). In the IgE serological tests, Yorkshire fog grass (40%), Yellow dock (36%), Kentucky bluegrass (36%) and T. putrescentiae (36%) were the most commonly reported positive results. The outcome of allergen-specific immunotherapy was judged to be excellent in 20% of dogs, good in 15%, modest in 18% and a failure in 47%. ConclusionAs has been reported in other geographical areas, environmental mites and plant pollens frequently gave positive reactions in allergy tests in South Australia. However, the prevalence of individual allergen reactions differed between intradermal and IgE serological tests, with M. pachydermatis being identified as a common cause of hypersensitivity in intradermal tests but not in IgE serological assays. Immunotherapy was judged to be a beneficial treatment in 35% of dogs but was essentially unsuccessful in 65%.