Risks of parasitism vary over time, with infection prevalence often fluctuating with seasonal changes in the annual cycle. Identifying the biological mechanisms underlying seasonality in infection can enable better prediction and prevention of future infection peaks. Obtaining longitudinal data on individual infections and traits across seasons throughout the annual cycle is perhaps the most effective means of achieving this aim, yet few studies have obtained such information for wildlife. Here, we tracked spiny common toads (Bufo spinosus) within and across annual cycles to assess seasonal variation in movement, body temperatures and infection from the fungal parasite, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Across annual cycles, toads did not consistently sustain infections but instead gained and lost infections from year to year. Radio-tracking showed that infected toads lose infections during post-breeding migrations, and no toads contracted infection following migration, which may be one explanation for the inter-annual variability in Bd infections. We also found pronounced seasonal variation in toad body temperatures. Body temperatures approached 0 °C during winter hibernation but remained largely within the thermal tolerance range of Bd. These findings provide direct documentation of migratory recovery (i.e., loss of infection during migration) and escape in a wild population. The body temperature reductions that we observed during hibernation warrant further consideration into the role that this period plays in seasonal Bd dynamics.

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Understanding the occurrence and consequence of co-infections can be useful in designing disease management interventions. Amphibians are the most highly threatened vertebrates, and emerging pathogens are a serious threat to their conservation. The amphibian chytrid fungus and the viruses of the Ranavirus genus are already widely distributed, causing disease outbreaks and population declines worldwide. However, we lack information about the occurrence and consequences of coinfection with these pathogens across age-classes of amphibian hosts. Here, we analyze the occurrence of infection of the amphibian chytrid fungus and ranaviruses during one season in two susceptible amphibian species at two different locations at which outbreaks have occurred. We found that the co-occurrence of both pathogens in a particular host is not common except in highly susceptible life-stages, and that single infections are the most common situation. Moreover, we found that the occurrence of one pathogen in a particular host did not predict the occurrence of the other. We attribute these results to the niches in which both pathogens proliferate in amphibian hosts.

Emerging infectious diseases are increasingly recognized as a severe threat to wildlife. Chytridiomycosis, caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), is considered one of the most important causes for the decline of amphibian populations worldwide. Identifying potential biological reservoirs and characterizing the role they can play in pathogen maintenance is not only important from a scientific point of view, but also relevant from an applied perspective (e.g. disease control strategies), especially when worldwide distributed invasive species are involved. We aimed (1) to analyse the prevalence and infection intensity of Bd in the invasive red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) across the western Andalusian region in Spain; and (2) to assess whether the presence of crayfish affects the prevalence and infection intensity of Bd in amphibians of Doñana Natural Space (DNS), a localized highly protected area within the Andalusian region. First, we found that infection prevalence in crayfish guts was 1.5% regionally (four out of 267 crayfish were qPCR positive to Bd, all of them belonging to the same Andalusian population); qPCR positives were histologically confirmed by finding zoosporangia of Bd in gastrointestinal walls of the red swamp crayfish. Second, we found a higher prevalence of Bd infection in DNS (19% for crayfish and 28% for amphibians on average), a place with great diversity and abundance of amphibians. Our analyses showed that prevalence of Bd in amphibians was related to the presence of the red swamp crayfish, indicating that this crayfish could be a suitable predictor of Bd infection in co-occurring amphibians. These results suggest that the red swamp crayfish might be a possible reservoir for Bd,

The intensity of a pathogen infection plays a key role in determining how the host responds to infection. Hosts with high infections are more likely to transmit infection to others, and are may be more likely to experience progression from infection to disease symptoms, to being physiologically compromised by disease. Understanding how and why hosts exhibit variation in infection intensity therefore plays a major part in developing and implementing measures aimed at controlling infection spread, its effects, and its chance of persisting and circulating within a population of hosts. To track the relative importance of a number of variables in determining the level of infection intensity, we ran field-surveys at two breeding sites over a 12 month period using marked larvae of the common midwife toad (Alyes obstetricans) and their levels of infection with the amphibian pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). At each sampling occasion we measured the density of larvae, the temperature of the water in the 48 h prior to sampling, the period of time the sampled individual had been in the water body, the developmental (Gosner) stage and the intensity of Bd infection of the individual. Overall our data suggest that the temperature and the duration of time spent in the water play a major role in determining the intensity of Bd infection within an individual host. However, although the duration of time spent in the water was clearly associated with infection intensity, the relationship was negative: larvae that had spent less than 3–6 months in the water had significantly higher infection intensities than those that had spent over 12 months, although this infection intensity peaked between 9 and 12 months. This could be due to animals with heavier infections developing more quickly, suffering increased mortality or, more likely, losing their mouthparts (the only part of anuran larvae that can be infected with Bd). Overall, our results identify drivers of infection intensity, and potentially transmissibility and spread, and we attribute these differences to both host and pathogen biology.