No abstract

Brain abscesses arise from a focal parenchymal infection by various pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. We have shown that astrocytes are activated upon exposure to S. aureus and may contribute to the excessive tissue damage characteristic of brain abscess. Therefore, modulating astrocyte activation may facilitate a reduction in brain abscess severity. Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-c (PPAR-c) agonists are potent inhibitors of microglial activation; however, the effects of these compounds on S. aureus-dependent astrocyte activation have not yet been examined. Here, we demonstrate that two chemically distinct PPAR-c agonists, 15-deoxy-D 12,14 -prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2) and ciglitazone, suppress the production of several pro-inflammatory molecules in S. aureus-stimulated astrocytes including interleukin-1b and nitric oxide (NO). Interestingly, 15d-PGJ2 attenuated Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression, but failed to modulate macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2/CXCL2) production, suggesting that 15d-PGJ2 is not a global inhibitor of astrocyte activation. Another novel finding of this study was the fact that both 15d-PGJ2 and ciglitazone were capable of attenuating pre-existing astrocyte activation, indicating their potential benefit in a therapeutic setting. Importantly, 15d-PGJ2 and ciglitazone were still capable of inhibiting S. aureus-induced pro-inflammatory mediator release in PPAR-c-deficient astrocytes, supporting PPAR-c-independent effects of these compounds. Collectively, these results suggest that 15d-PGJ2 and ciglitazone exert their anti-inflammatory actions on astrocytes primarily independent of the PPAR-c pathway.

BackgroundIn astrocytes, the inflammatory induction of Nitric Oxide Synthase type 2 (NOS2) is inhibited by noradrenaline (NA) at the transcriptional level however its effects on specific transcription factors are not fully known. Recent studies show that the activity of several transcription factors including C/EBPβ, which is needed for maximal NOS2 expression, is modulated by conjugation of the small molecular weight protein SUMO. We examined whether the expression of SUMO Related Genes (SRGs: SUMO-1, the conjugating enzyme Ubc9, and the protease SENP1) are affected by inflammatory conditions or NA and whether SUMO-1 regulates NOS2 through interaction with C/EBPβ.MethodsBacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to induce inflammatory responses including NOS2 expression in primary astrocytes. The mRNA levels of SRGs were determined by QPCR. A functional role for SUMOylation was evaluated by determining effects of over-expressing SRGs on NOS2 promoter and NFκB binding-element reporter constructs. Interactions of SUMO-1 and C/EBPβ with the NOS2 promoter were examined by chromatin immunoprecipitation assays. Interactions of SUMO-1 with C/EBPβ were examined by immunoprecipitation and Western blot analysis and by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assays.ResultsLPS decreased mRNA levels of SUMO-1, Ubc9 and SENP1 in primary astrocytes and a similar decrease occurred during normal aging in brain. NA attenuated the LPS-induced reductions and increased SUMO-1 above basal levels. Over-expression of SUMO-1, Ubc9, or SENP1 reduced the activation of a NOS2 promoter, whereas activation of a 4 × NFκB binding-element reporter was only reduced by SUMO-1. ChIP studies revealed interactions of SUMO-1 and C/EBPβ with C/EBP binding sites on the NOS2 promoter that were modulated by LPS and NA. SUMO-1 co-precipitated with C/EBPβ and a close proximity was confirmed by FRET analysis.ConclusionOur results demonstrate that SUMOylation regulates NOS2 expression in astrocytes, and point to modification of C/EBPβ as a possible mechanism of action. Targeting the SUMOylation pathway may therefore offer a novel means to regulate inflammatory NOS2 expression in neurological conditions and diseases.

No abstract

No abstract