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Blindfolded by a lack of earlier systematic data, comparative studies of regional developments in historical Italy begin with the formation of the Italian state, in 1861. We use literacy rates reported in post-1861 population censuses combined with the fact that literacy skills were usually achieved during youth to predict regional literacy developments all the way back to 1821. Our analysis informs ongoing debates about the origins and long-run evolution of Italy’s north–south divide. By lifting the veil into Italy’s pre-unification past, we establish that the north–south literacy gap was substantial already in 1821, grew markedly wider in the first half of the nineteenth century, only to revert back in 1911 to the 1821 level. Gender gaps in literacy essentially close in the north during 1821–1911, while in the south they registered a secular stagnation. This opens an avenue for investigating a new dimension of the north–south gap largely overlooked in the existing literature.

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1995, Matric potential evaluations and measurements for gelled substrates. -Physiol. Plant. 94; 151-157.A new method for evaluating the matric potential of gelled media has been developed. Tbe method allows the derivation of the matric potential as a limit of a series of measurements of water potential values from gelled media prepared without added components, from agar powders progressively cleaned of mineral impurities. Three commercial agar brands were tested, and for these the matric potential was found to contribute only between 1 and 2% of their total water potential, Thermodynamic features relating matric and osmotic potentials are described. New hypotheses for understanding the water flux mechanism from gel to tissue cultured explants are discussed. Movement of water along polymeric chains is postulated to be a facilitated step in comparison with bulk movement.