Estrildid finches are distributed throughout Africa, South Asia, Australia and neighbouring islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Some specific phylogenetic and systematic debated questions have been clarified in the present study by mitochondrial cytochrome b DNA sequencing of 61 species of Estrildids and subsequent analyses of results by both Bayesian Inference and Maximum Likelihood methodologies. Our results support that Estrildids are a monophyletic group with polytomies that may have started evolving by Middle Miocene Epoch (about 16, 5 million years ago). This proposed timing is coincidental with the Fringillinae finches' radiation starting time and also with the biggest Hymalayan and Tibetan Plateau uplift, triggered by the Indian tectonic plate strongest collision; this established present day southern Asia monsoon regime and other drastic climatic changes, like a dryer weather in Tibetan Plateau and China deserts. The Estrildid finches form a monophyletic group which includes several polytomies and comprises African, Asian and Australian birds. The most ancient evolutive group comprises African (African silverbill), Asian (Indian silverbill) and Australian (diamond firetail); this suggests that the whole Estrildids radiation might have originated around India.More Estrildid species will be studied in order to further establish this group phylogeography. In addition, monophyletic radiations include species from different Continents. Finally, Ploceinae Genus Quelea finches is a group separate and basal from Estrildini and Viduini species in our dendrograms.

Uros population from the Titikaka Lake live in about 42 floating reed ('totora') islands in front of Puno City (Peru) at a 4000 m high altiplano. They present both an mtDNA and a human leucocyte antigen (HLA) profile different from the surrounding populations: mtDNA A2 haplogroup is common to Uros and Amazon forest lowland Amerindians. HLA genetic distances between populations have been calculated and neighbour-joining dendrograms and correspondence analyses were carried out. Approximately 15 006 HLA chromosomes from worldwide populations have been used for comparisons. Only eight HLA-A alleles have been found, three of them accounting for most of the frequencies. The same phenomenon is seen for HLA-B, HLA-DRB1 and HLA-DQB1 alleles: a few alleles (3, 4 and 3, respectively) are present in most individuals. The presence of HLA-B*4801 and HLA-DRB1*0901 alleles in a relatively high frequency (although not the most frequent alleles found) is a characteristic shared with Asians and some populations from the Andean altiplano. Three specific Uros haplotypes have been found among the most frequent ones: HLA-A*680102-B*3505-DRB1*0403-DQB1*0302; HLA-A*2402-B*1504-DRB1*1402-DQB1*0301; and HLA-A*2402-B*4801-DRB1*0403-DQB1*0302. The present study suggests that Uros may have been one of the first populations from the shores of the Titikaka Lake coming from the Amazonian forest, which might have given rise to other later differentiated ethnic group (i.e. Aymaras). Uros HLA profile is also useful to study genetic epidemiology of diseases linked to HLA and to construct a future transplant waiting list by adding up regional lists in order to get a bigger pool for transplanting with better HLA matching.

Amerindian Mapuche (Araucanians) are now living in Chile and Argentina at both sides of Andean Mountains. They are anthropologically and genetically different from southernmost South America Patagonian Amerindians. Most of the HLA alleles found in our Mapuche sample are frequent or very frequent in North and South America Amerindians: (1) Class I: A*02:01, A*03:01, A*68:01, B*39:09, B*51:01, (2) Class II: DRB1*03:01, DRB1*04:03, DRB1*07:01, DRB1*08:02, DRB1*14:02, DRB1*16:02. One of the nine most frequent extended haplotypes seems to be from European origin, suggesting the existence of a degree of admixture with Europeans in our Mapuche sample. It has been calculated of about 11 % admixture. Three of the extended haplotypes are also found in other Amerindians and five of them are newly found in Mapuche Amerindians: A*68:01-B*39:09-DRB1*08:02-DQB1*04:02; A*68:01-B*51:01-DRB1*04:03-DQB1*03:02; A*29:01-B*08:01-DRB1*03:01-DQB1*02:01; A*02:01-B*15:01-DRB1*04:03-DQB1*03:02; A*33:01-B*14:02-DRB1*07:01-DQB1*03:03. The medical importance of calculating HLA profile is discussed on the diagnostic (HLA and disease) and therapeutical bases of HLA pharmacogenomics and on the construction of a virtual transplantation HLA list profile. Also, anthropological conclusions are drawn.

The classical three-waves theory of American peopling through Beringia was based on a mixed anthropological and linguistic methodology. The use of mtDNA, Y chromosome and other DNA markers offers different results according to the different markers and methodologies chosen by different authors. At present, the peopling of Americas remains uncertain, regarding: time of population, number of peopling waves and place of peopling entrance among other related issues. In the present review, we have gathered most available HLA data already obtained about First Native American populations, which raise some doubts about the classical three waves of American peopling hypothesis. In summary, our conclusions are: 1) North West Canadian Athabaskans have had gene flow with: a) close neighboring populations, b) Amerindians, c) Pacific Islanders including East Australians and d) Siberians; 2) Beringia was probably not the only entrance of people to America: Pacific Ocean boat trips may have contributed to the HLA genetic American profile (or the opposite could also be true); 3) Amerindians entrance to America may have been different to that of Athabaskans and Eskimos and Amerindians may have been in their lands long before Athabaskans and Eskimos because they present and altogether different set of HLA-DRB1 allele frequencies; 4) Amerindians show very few “particular alleles”, almost all are shared with other Amerindians, Athabaskans and Pacific Islanders, including East Australians and Siberians; 5) Our results do not support the three waves model of American peopling, but another model where the people entrance is not only Beringia, but also Pacific Coast. Reverse migration (America to Asia) is not discarded and different movements of people in either direction in different times are supported by the Athabaskan population admixture with Asian-Pacific population and with Amerindians, 6) HLA variability is more common than allele veriability in Amerindians. Finally, it is shown that gene genealogy analises should be completed with allele frequency analyses in population relatednes and migrations studies.

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