Berengario da Carpi was magister of anatomy and surgery at the University of Bologna from 1502 to 1527. Eustachio and Falloppia defined him as ‘the restaurator of anatomy’. He was a great surgeon, anatomist and physician of illustrious patients including Lorenzo II dei Medici, Giovanni dalle Bande Nere, Galeazzo Pallavicini, Cardinal Colonna, and Alessandro Soderini. He had strong links to the intellectuals of his time (Forni, Bonamici, Manuzio, Pomponazzi) as well as with the Medici family. He was respected by the Popes Julius II, Leo X and Clement VII. His main contributions are the Isogogae Breves, De Fractura calvae sive cranei, and the illustrated Commentaria on the Anatomy of Mondino de Liucci, a textbook utilized for more than 200 years, which Berengario aimed to restore to its initial text. The Commentaria constitutes the material for the last part of this paper which concludes with a personal translation of some passages on ‘The kidney’, where the author gives poignant examples of experimental ingenuity.

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A total of 11 non-gouty popes out of 264 (4.1%) died of kidney stones (very probably calcium stones) between the years 34-2005 AD. The prevalence of kidney stones was lower than expected on the basis of recent population-based data. The discrepancy might be due to the changing nutritional habits. Causes of death included acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, and stroke. The disease was highly recurrent in 9 of 11 (88.1%). Recurrences were observed 1 to 30 years after the first attack. Mean age at death was 63.1 years, much shorter than expected in popes. Clinically recurrent back-flank-groin pain emerged as a hallmark indicator of kidney stones in the narratives. It was sometimes associated with fever, hematuria, purulent urine and/or frequent urination and dysuria. Some popes were obese, sedentary, voracious and wine drinkers; others were lean, took long walks, ate frugal meals and practiced restraint when it came to drinking alcohol. They were cured with bed rest, diets, donkey milk, mineral waters, decongestant, purgatives, thermal baths, blood-letting, and surgery.

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