The aim of the study was to determine whether there are genetic variations in growth and leaf phenology (flushing and senescence) among populations of six woody species ( Abies alba Mill., Acer pseudoplatanus L., Fagus sylvatica L., Fraxinus excelsior L., Ilex aquifolium L., and Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) along altitudinal gradients, using a common-garden experiment. We found (i) significant differences in phenology and growth among provenances for most species and (ii) evidence that these among-population differences in phenology were related to the annual temperature at the provenance sites for ash, beech, and oak. It is noteworthy that along the same climatic gradient, species can exhibit opposing genetic clines: beech populations from high elevations flushed earlier than those from low elevations, whereas we observed the opposite trend for ash and oak. For most species, significant altitudinal clines for growth were also revealed. Finally, we highlighted the fact that both phenology timing and growth rate were highly consistent from year to year. The results demonstrated that despite the proximity of the populations in their natural area, differences in altitude led to genetic differentiation in their phenology and growth. These adaptive capacities acting along a natural climatic gradient could allow populations to cope with current climate change.

Summary1. Phenotypic plasticity allows large shifts in the timing of phenology within one single generation and drives phenotypic variability under environmental changes, thus it will enhance the inherent adaptive capacities of plants against future changes of climate. 2. Using five common gardens set along an altitudinal gradient (100-1600 m asl.), we experimentally examined the phenotypic plasticity of leaf phenology in response to temperature increase for two temperate tree species (Fagus sylvatica and Quercus petraea). We used seedlings from three populations of each species inhabiting different altitudes (400, 800 and 1200 m asl.). Leaf unfolding in spring and leaf senescence in autumn were monitored on seedlings for 2 years. 3. Overall, a high phenological plasticity was found for both species. The reaction norms of leaf unfolding date to temperature linearly accelerated for both species with an average shift of )5AE7 days per degree increase. Timing of leaf senescence exhibited hyperbolic trends for beech due to earlier senescence at the lowest elevation garden and no or slight trends for oak. There was no difference in the magnitude of phenological plasticity among populations from different elevations. For both species, the growing season length increased to reach maximum values at about 10-13°C of annual temperature according to the population. 4. Since the magnitude of phenological plasticity is high for all the tested populations, they are likely to respond immediately to temperature variations in terms of leaf phenology. Consequently the mid-to high-elevation populations are likely to experience a longer growing season with climate warming. The results suggest that climate warming could lengthen the growing season of all populations over the altitudinal gradient, although the low-elevation populations, especially of beech, may experience accelerated senescence and shorter growing season due to drought and other climate changes associated with warming.