Purpose -The sector of work integration social enterprises (WISEs) has grown considerably all across Europe during the last few decades. Unfortunately, many governments do not have a clear sight on the profile of WISEs they are supporting. The purpose of this paper is to provide a detailed profile of WISEs in Flanders and identify shifts and differences within and between WISE work forms. Design/methodology/approach -Data are utilized from a newly designed monitoring instrument to capture the profile of WISEs in Flanders (Belgium). This paper discusses some methodological issues in using administrative data to monitor this sector, and present a profile at the enterprise level and at the worker level. Parametric and nonparametric tests are applied to assess the significance of profile shifts and differences within this sector. Findings -One of the dominant features of the analysis has been the identification of profound differences that can be observed between the work forms and the slighter differences that are observed within the work forms while comparing start-ups to their mature counterparts. Therefore, it might be concluded that the policy framework on the social insertion economy as it currently exists in Flanders has a strong regulative impact on the WISEs in Flanders. This impact translates itself through differences in the profile of enterprises, as well as differences in the profile of the target group workers they employ. Originality/value -A dataset combining administrative data are created to estimate enterprise and target group worker profiles in this sector. The discussion on methodological aspects involved contributes to the literature on monitoring this sector.

Membership rates of agricultural co-operatives vary widely across member states of the European Union. Inspired by various strands of literature (institutionalism, social capital theory, literature on transition countries and the 'software of the mind'), we investigate historical and social determinants of those differences. We find that social capital and the legacy of communism are significantly correlated with the attractiveness of the co-operative sector for farmers, while the Hofstede indicators, measuring deeply rooted cultural values that otherwise are so robust and have correlations with many entrepreneurial and organizational aspects, are not. We describe our analysis and elaborate on the limits and implications of the data used and methodology applied. Agrargenossenschaften in Europa: Soziale und historische Determinanten genossenschaftlicher Mitgliedschaft in der Landwirtschaft Die Mitgliedschaftsquoten von Agrargenossenschaften variieren stark in den Mitgliedstaaten der Europäischen Union. Angeregt von verschiedenen Literatursträngen (Institutionalismus, Sozialkapital-Theorie, Literaturüber Transformationsländer und die ,,Software of the mind"), untersuchen wir historische und soziale Determinanten für diese Unterschiede. Wir stellen fest, dass Sozialkapital und das Erbe des Kommunismus signifikant korrelieren mit der Attraktivität des Genossenschaftssektors für Landwirte, während dies für die Hofstede-Indikatoren, die tief verwurzelte kulturelle Werte messen, welche sonst so robust sind und Korrelationen zu vielen unternehmerischen und organisatorischen Aspekten aufweisen, nicht gilt. Wir stellen unsere Analyse * E-mail: hiva@kuleuven.be www.hiva.be 1 This article is the result of an analysis done within the framework of a research project, 'Support for Farmers' Co-operatives', commissioned by the European Commission -DG Agriculture and coordinated by LEI -Wageningen. The authors are grateful to the European Commission for financial support and to the coordinators for the opportunity given to collaborate in this broad and exiting endeavour.

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PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to understand the emergence of new, multi‐stakeholder co‐operatives in China and identify their resource mix structure, as well as the influence of institutional environments. The empirical observations are related to a conceptual rationale of social enterprises as private businesses, and it is suggested that the new rural co‐operatives found in China are increasingly caught in a “co‐operative trilemma” and an emerging public–private “welfare partnership”.Design/methodology/approachThe paper is developed from a conceptual rationale of social enterprises as private businesses that are not primarily driven by financial profit but by a combination of economic and social objectives, whereby stakeholders from various institutional spheres (market, state and civil society) are increasingly involved. Based upon this, the paper analyses and synthesizes the main findings from 20 cases investigated during fieldwork conducted in China. Data were gathered through a combination of semi‐structured interviews with key figures in the field and documentary analysis.FindingsThe main findings show that new co‐operatives in China indeed combine multiple resources, including members’ contributions and institutional capital, public financial support and market sales, as well as private non‐market resources such as volunteering and donations. This empirical observation provides further evidence of the transformation process of Chinese rural co‐operatives from classic mutual aids to a new model with a more outward community orientation and a multi‐stakeholder character. Moreover, it was found that institutional environments facilitate or discourage co‐operatives’ multiple resources formation. Based upon this empirical evidence it is seen how new Chinese rural co‐operatives are caught in a “co‐operative trilemma”, finding themselves “at the crossroads of market, public policy and civil society” and involved in an emerging public‐private “welfare partnership”.Research limitations/implicationsThe research has implications for research on co‐operatives and social enterprises in China, as well as policy implications with regard to the development of more favourable institutional support for co‐operatives as rural third‐sector organizations.Originality/valueBy addressing three research questions the paper contributes to the literature on the emergence of multi‐stakeholder co‐operatives in China (and in developing countries more generally) and contributes to the literature on the capital structure of co‐operatives from practice and policy perspectives. Based upon evidence from China, the paper helps to explain how these newly emerging rural co‐operatives in China, which are struggling against capital constraints when facing a highly competitive environment and trying to catch up through a process of diversification, just like many contemporary co‐operatives in the West, are finding themselves caught in a new co‐operative trilemma.