1 The GABA-modulating and GABA-mimetic activities of the monoterpenoid thymol were explored on human GABA A and Drosophila melanogaster homomeric RDL ac GABA receptors expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, voltage-clamped at À60 mV. The site of action of thymol was also investigated. 2 Thymol, 1 -100 mM, resulted in a dose-dependent potentiation of the EC 20 GABA response in oocytes injected with either a1b3g2s GABA A subunit cDNAs or the RDL ac subunit RNA. At 100 mM thymol, current amplitudes in response to GABA were 416772 and 715785% of controls, respectively. On both receptors, thymol, 100 mM, elicited small currents in the absence of GABA. 3 The EC 50 for GABA at a1b3g2s GABA A receptors was reduced by 50 mM thymol from 1573 to 471 mM, and the Hill slope changed from 1.3570.14 to 1.0470.16; there was little effect on the maximum GABA response. 4 Thymol (1 -100 mM) potentiation of responses to EC 20 GABA for a1b1g2s, a6b3g2s and a1b3g2s human GABA A receptors was almost identical, arguing against actions at benzodiazepine or loreclezole sites. 5 Neither flumazenil, 3-hydroxymethyl-b-carboline (3-HMC), nor 5a-pregnane-3a, 20a-diol (5a-pregnanediol) affected thymol potentiation of the GABA response at a1b3g2s receptors, providing evidence against actions at the benzodiazepine/b-carboline or steroid sites. Thymol stimulated the agonist actions of pentobarbital and propofol on a1b3g2s receptors, consistent with a mode of action distinct from that of either compound. These data suggest that thymol potentiates GABA A receptors through a previously unidentified binding site.

Bone metabolism involves a complex balance between the deposition of matrix and mineralization and resorption. There is now good evidence that dietary components and herbal products can influence these processes, particularly by inhibiting bone resorption, thus having beneficial effects on the skeleton. For example, it has been reported that a number of common vegetables, including onion, garlic and parsley, can inhibit bone resorption in ovariectomized rats. Essential oils derived from sage, rosemary, thyme and other herbs inhibit osteoclast activity in vitro and in vitro and leading to an increase in bone mineral density. Soya, a rich source of isoflavones, has shown promising results and epidemiological evidence to support a use in maintaining bone health, and various traditional herbal formulae in Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine also have demonstrable effects in pharmacological models of osteoporosis. Recently, cannabinoids have been described as having positive effects on osteoblast differentiation, and the presence of cannabinoid receptors in bone tissue indicates a more complex role in bone metabolism than previously thought. The first part of this review briefly discusses normal bone metabolism and disorders caused by its disruption, with particular reference to osteoporosis and current pharmacological treatments. The effects of natural products on bone and connective tissue are then discussed, to include items of diet, herbal extracts and food supplements, with evidence for their efficacy outlined.

Ethnobotanical relevanceMedicinal and food plants in the Basque Country are an integral part of a fast changing culture. With a distinct tradition and language, this region of Europe provides an important example demonstrating the changing role of local and traditional knowledge in industrial countries. As other Mediterranean regions it preserves a rich heritage of using plants as medicine and food, offering a unique opportunity for studying the medicine food interface in an ethnopharmacological context. Therefore, the key goal of this study has been to contribute to an understanding of local and traditional plant usage, to evaluate their uses as food and medicine as well as to critically assess the role of these plants in the south of the Basque Country contributing to an understanding of how foods and medicines are used.MethodsA mixed methods approach, including participant observation; open and semi structured interviews was used. Ethnobotanical field work included 183 people, ages ranged from 24 to 98 years old with a majority being between 70 and 80 years old (mean age 71) from 31 towns of three different regions. The basic interview was a one-to-one meeting, which often included field walking and collection of samples as directed by the informants. 700 voucher specimens (most of them with duplicates) were collected for the data obtained.Using SPSS version 20 the gathered information was processed and the replies of the different informants were subsequently organised in variables like medicine and food plants, part of the plants used, forms of preparations, zones preferred for collecting these plants. The data were analysed based on the frequency of records. This type of approach allows us to understand the way the informant’s categorize the species, and how these categories are distributed along the sample. In order to analyse the data three main categories of use were distinguished: Medicine (M), Food (F) and an intermediate Health-Food (H-F). The three categories were divided in 27 subcategories (common uses).Results and discussionThe informants recognise and use a total of 184 species from 49 families. During interviews, 5658 individual use-reports were collected relating to three use-categories – as medicines, food and health-food. The two main groups with almost the same number of species each are health-food (75 species) and (locally gathered) food only (73), with medicinal uses only (36) being the smallest group. This highlights the important overlap between food and medicines.Overall, three core families were identified (based on the number of use reports and in the number of species): Asteraceae (25 species), Lamiaceae and Rosaceae (24 each). The most frequently reported species are Jasonia glutinosa, Chamaemelum nobile, Prunus spinosa and Quercus ilex subsp. ballota.The most important general use-subcategories are as raw vegetables (27.43% of the use-reports and including 81 species), infusions (14.74%/42) and gastrointestinal (12.53%/42). Conceptually foods and medicines are clearly distinguishe...

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