We recently characterized the substrate scope of wild-type RebH and evolved variants of this enzyme with improved stability for biocatalysis. The substrate scopes of both RebH and the stabilized variants, however, are limited primarily to compounds similar in size to tryptophan. We have now used a substrate walking approach to further evolve RebH variants with expanded substrate scope. Two particularly notable variants were identified: 3-SS, which provides high conversion of tricyclic tryptoline derivatives; and 4-V, which accepts a broad range of large indoles and carbazoles. This constitutes the first reported use of directed evolution to enable functionalization of substrates not accepted by wild-type RebH and demonstrates the utility of RebH variants for site-selective halogenation of biologically active compounds.

We previously reported that the halogenase RebH catalyzes selective halogenation of several heterocycles and carbocycles, but product yields were limited by enzyme instability. Here, we use directed evolution to engineer a RebH variant, 3-LR, with a Topt over 5 °C higher than that of wild type, and 3-LSR, with a Tm 18 °C higher than that of wild type. These enzymes provided significantly (up to 4-fold) improved conversions for halogenation of tryptophan and several non-natural substrates. This initial demonstration of RebH evolution not only provides improved enzymes for immediate synthetic applications, but also establishes a robust protocol for further halogenase evolution.

SummaryOxidative stress serves as an important host/ environmental signal that triggers a wide range of responses from the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus. Among these, a thiol-based oxidation sensing pathway through a global regulator MgrA controls the virulence and antibiotic resistance of the bacterium. Herein, we report a new thiol-based oxidation sensing and regulation system that is mediated through a parallel global regulator SarZ. SarZ is a functional homologue of MgrA and is shown to affect the expression of~87 genes in S. aureus. It uses a key Cys residue, Cys-13, to sense oxidative stress and to co-ordinate the expression of genes involved in metabolic switching, antibiotic resistance, peroxide stress defence, virulence, and cell wall properties. The discovery of this SarZ-mediated regulation, mostly independent from the MgrA-based regulation, fills a missing gap of oxidation sensing and response in S. aureus.

The paralogous iron-responsive transcription factors Aft1 and Aft2 (activators of ferrous transport) regulate iron homeostasis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by activating expression of iron-uptake and -transport genes when intracellular iron is low. We present the previously unidentified crystal structure of Aft2 bound to DNA that reveals the mechanism of DNA recognition via specific interactions of the iron-responsive element with a Zn -induced Aft2 dimerization cannot be completely ruled out as an alternative Aft2 inhibition mechanism. Taken together, these data provide insight into the molecular mechanism for iron-dependent transcriptional regulation of Aft2 and highlight the key role of Fe-S clusters as cellular iron signals.iron signaling | iron-sulfur cluster | yeast | Fra2 | Grx3

SarZ is a global transcriptional regulator that uses a single cysteine residue, Cys 13 , to sense peroxide stress and control metabolic switching and virulence in Staphylococcus aureus. SarZ belongs to the single-cysteine class of OhrR-MgrA proteins that play key roles in oxidative resistance and virulence regulation in various bacteria. We present the crystal structures of the reduced form, sulfenic acid form, and mixed disulfide form of SarZ. Both the sulfenic acid and mixed disulfide forms are structurally characterized for the first time for this class of proteins. The Cys 13 sulfenic acid modification is stabilized through two hydrogen bonds with surrounding residues, and the overall DNA-binding conformation is retained. A further reaction of the Cys 13 sulfenic acid with an external thiol leads to formation of a mixed disulfide bond, which results in an allosteric change in the DNA-binding domains, disrupting DNA binding. Thus, the crystal structures of SarZ in three different states provide molecular level pictures delineating the mechanism by which this class of redox active regulators undergoes activation. These structures help to understand redox-mediated virulence regulation in S. aureus and activation of the MarR family proteins in general.