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This review aimed to identify the strategies used in programs based on cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to prevent and treat symptoms of anxiety, depression, and internalized behaviors of children and adolescents. Based on an online search (ERIC, PsycInfo, Virtuose UQAM, and Google Scholar), 61 studies describing different cognitive behavioral programs were selected. Results showed that 40 strategies were implemented in at least one program. However, none of the strategies were systematically present in all programs, and only few were reported in more than 50% of the studies. Cognitive restructuring and problem-solving were the most popular strategies to treat depressive symptoms, whereas anxiety programs also generally included relaxation and exposure. Furthermore, six strategies were identified in a single anxiety program, whereas nine strategies were implemented in only one depression program. These results suggest that in anxiety and depression programs designed for children and adolescents, the label "CBT" encompasses a wide variety of programs with only few similar strategies. Such findings highlight the need to define a common basis for CBT programs, in order to better reflect CBT theory and to identify the effectiveness of the strategies included in these programs.

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In school, the importance of motivation to promote achievement is well-recognized. Conceived as what moves people to act and pursue a goal, achievement motivation was studied in light of diverse theoretical approaches. However, these approaches provide distinct but complementary conceptions of achievement motivation, which may make the construct harder to understand, especially for non-experts. This article offers a theoretical review of the three dominant theories of school motivation, namely expectancy-value theory, achievement goal theory, and self-determination theory. It also highlights similarities between each theory and proposes an integrative model to better conceptualize the construct of school motivation.

Background. When exposed to evaluative situations, up to 40% of students develop test anxiety, reflected, namely, by extensive worry, intrusive thoughts, and physiological arousal. Though the negative influence of test anxiety on later school performance is well documented, the role of students' initial achievement in the development of later test anxiety is less clear.Aims and Sample. To better capture the nature of the relations between prior mathematics and language arts achievement and later test anxiety across genders, this study examined linear and curvilinear relationships among 1,569 French-speaking Canadian students followed across the transition to secondary school, a critical period for test anxiety.Methods. Students completed a questionnaire at the beginning and the end of the first year of secondary school, and schools provided us with students grades at the end of 6th grade and the fall of 7th grade.Results. Multilevel regression analyses showed that only mathematics achievement at the end of elementary school predicted test anxiety at the beginning of secondary school. In secondary school, beginning-of-year achievement in both mathematics and language arts predicted test anxiety at the end of this same year, but different patterns were observed for boys and girls.Conclusions. Because nonlinear relations were observed at each timepoint, low achievers may not be the only group of students who are at greater risk of developing high levels of test anxiety. Therefore, interventions targeting students with different achievement profiles might help to reduce test anxiety and facilitate the transition to secondary school.