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the Nalubaale and Kiira hydropower plants, Eskom Uganda was awarded a 20-year concession agreement for operations at both. In 2004, following extended negotiations; the Umeme 3 electricity distribution company signed a 20-year concession agreement to operate UEDCL's distribution network, with an effective commencement date of 2005. By 2006, most of the main reform measures had been completed and are still reflected in the structure of the power sector today. A summary of Uganda's main power sector institutions is presented in Box. 1.This case study sets out to explore Uganda's power sector reform experience by drilling down into the dynamics between sector development, performance, and key reform interventions. It departs from the premise that sector reform is a means to the end of improved sector performance, and examines to what extent different reform measures bore fruit in terms of power sector outcomes. As part of a wider global study of power sector reform, the primary objective of the paper is to draw lessons from Uganda's story that are of wider relevance to policy makers and reform practitioners, rather than to offer recommendations for Uganda itself. The paper is structured into two primary sections. The first provides a detailed, chronological account of the sector's institutional development and expeditious reform trajectory -and is seated within the broader political and economic history of Uganda. The second focuses on sector performance, probing links to institutional reforms, political economy dynamics, and macro-level structures and shocks in four areas: security of supply, access and accessibility, utility performance, and financial viability. Box. 1 Uganda's power sector institutions Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development (MEMD):The MEMD is the focal point for energy policy matters within the Ugandan government. For public or emergency power generation projects in the past, the MEMD acted as a procurement entity, either in its own right or through the sector's parastatals. Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA):ERA's main responsibilities are licensing and setting electricity tariffs. ERA also defines and monitors technical standards within the sector and enforces adherence to the National Grid Code. It issues and monitors the licenses required to generate, transmit, and distribute power. ERA also sets and reviews feed-in tariffs for renewable energy (REFiT) generation projects between 1 and 20MW. Uganda Electricity Generation Company Ltd. (UEGCL):UEGCL is the holding company for state-owned generation assets. Its main roles are: to oversee the performance of Eskom Uganda and of the thermal plant at Namanve (50 MW); to negotiate and administer engineering, procurement, and construction contracts for government/ public projects as well as all Build Own Operate Transfer (BOOT) projects, namely IPPs; and to supervise the operations and maintenance of mid-tier public projects.Eskom Uganda Ltd.: Eskom Uganda is a subsidiary of South Africa's utility giant, Eskom Holdings. In 2003, Eskom Uganda w...

Concern around the employment impacts of climate mitigation policies can be a contentious and politized issue, with potentially limiting implications for climate action. It persists despite a significant ex ante literature that suggests that aggregate effects will most likely be limited and net positive. This review analyses 60 papers assessing the employment impacts of climate policies ex post, in 20 countries and 2 country groups. Eight broad mitigation policies are covered: (1) emissions trading, (2) carbon taxes, (3) feed-in tariffs, renewable energy (4) procurement and ( 5) deployment, (6) green economy/jobs, (7) environmental regulation, and (8) other policies and regulations. The analysis confirms that employment impacts tend to be modest and net positive or neutral, but reveals that distributional outcomes can be uneven, disadvantaging certain groups and at times reinforcing existing inequalities. Additionally, lower quality jobs or weak labor market regulations may decrease the attractiveness of jobs created or increase job transition costs. These findings provide some justification for increased focus on how climate policies can ensure a "just transition of the workforce and the creation of decent work and quality jobs" stipulated in the Paris Agreement, but also suggest that climate action should not be delayed for fear of widespread negative employment impacts. Ex post assessments offer an important lens into the determinants of climate policy employment outcomes and should be advanced and harnessed in support of accelerated and just action. This article is categorized under: Economics of Mitigation > Climate Economics Social Justice and the Politics of Development > Climate and Development K E Y W O R D S climate mitigation, employment impacts, ex-post review 1 | INTRODUCTION Unmitigated climate change will have severe, negative impacts across all spheres of human existence, including employment and livelihoods (IPCC, 2022). In a best-case scenario where mitigation efforts are accelerated in pursuit of

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When South Africa's former Public Protector, 1 Thuli Madonsela, released the State of Capture report in November 2016, Eskom was the primary site of alleged wrongdoing. The State-Owned Company's (SOC) executives, procurement, and Board appeared to have facilitated public-private collaboration critical to the systematic looting of national resources. Events at South Africa's national public utility were said to proffer confirmation that the "relationship between the President and the Gupta family had evolved into 'state capture'" (Public Protector, 2016, p. 5).That Eskom is pivotal to the state capture project is not surprising, given the scale and complexity that have characterised the organisation through its successive legal-institutional modulations. It is one of the largest power utilities in the world, operating in one of most energy intensive economy globally (Oyewo, Aghahosseini, Ram, Breyer & Lohrmann, 2019). Its role in South Africa's economy has endowed its leaders with significant influence and power. Eskom and the associated private coal mining operations are inextricably linked to South Africa's industrial and political development, and connected to powerful business interests. The market-dominant utility generates more than 90% of South Africa's electricity. It controls the entire national high voltage transmission grid, and distributes more than half of electricity directly to consumers. With annual revenues nearly three times that of Transnet and six times that of SAA, Eskom is by far the largest of South Africa's SOCs. For the 2018/19 financial year, its assets were valued in excess of R758bn, and its capital expenditure stood at R33.9bn (Eskom, 2019).The concentration of capital, established resource flows, rich interdependencies, resilient public-private networks and an enduring lack of transparency have been 1The Public Protector is one of six independent state institutions set up to support and defend democracy, subject only to South Africa's Constitution and the law, and report annually to Parliament (Republic of South Africa, 1996). In 2019, these line ministries and departments were merged again.