This article provides an overview of research into the emotional abuse of children, where it is the main or sole form of abuse. The aim of the project was to make a contribution to intervention in cases of psychological maltreatment. In order to do so, issues of de®nition, prevalence, location, manifestation and current intervention were explored. Both quantitative and qualitative data were required in order to address dierent aspects of the issues to be explored. Additionally, professional`provider' perspectives as well as`consumer' ones were sought. Information was therefore obtained from three sources: semi-structured interviews with 112 child protection professionals, a population survey of 504 students and in-depth interviews with 12 adult survivors of childhood emotional abuse. Outcomes included a suggested operational de®nition and an indication of prevalence. Emotional abuse appeared to be found in a broad range of families although it was more prominent in those exposed to multiple stressors. Abusive behaviours were identi®ed and categorized. Signs in the children were varied but included attempted suicide or self-harm, eating disorders and school problems. A notable contribution of the study was the identi®cation of the importance of lifelines for emotionally abused children which provided them with unconditional, positive regard.

A B S T R A C T Emotional abuse, even when it is the sole form of abuse, can be psychologically harmful, but there are a number of internal and environmental factors that may protect children from ultimate damage. External factors are of importance to practitioners because they are more amenable to positive change through intervention. The objective of the research was to explore what factors in emotionally abused children's environments might be important in helping them cope with their abusive childhoods. The method of inquiry was through in-depth, unstructured interviews with 14 adults who had survived significant emotional abuse in childhood. Although a number of external factors was identified by the interviewees, the non-abusing parent did not feature as one of these factors. Other family members, including siblings, grandparents and, particularly aunts, provided support to the majority of interviewees. Friends, teachers and other professionals were all helpful, while religious groups had a positive role for some. Non-human lifelines such as pets, toys and books were important to several children. The implications of these findings for intervention are discussed.K E Y W O R D S child protection, emotional abuse, psychological maltreatment, surviving abuse

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A B S T RA C TThe research was undertaken in the context of the ongoing debate about child care social work training and children's participation. Its aim was to explore the views of qualified child care social workers about their skills in eliciting the wishes and feelings of younger children and the relevance of social work training for this task. Questionnaires, focusing on their skills and training, were completed by 70 UK child care practitioners from the Children and Families Court Advisory and Support Service, voluntary agencies and local authorities. On average, practitioners felt able to ascertain the feelings and wishes of children as young as 4 years old. Nevertheless, at qualifying level, only 30% had training in communicating with young children, 16% in ascertaining children's feelings and wishes, and 66% in child development. Many had subsequently relied on in-service training and their own initiatives to acquire further skills and understanding. In conclusion, most participants were experienced practitioners working in supportive organizations and had developed considerable communication skills. However, concerns remain because they identified deficits in child care social work qualifying and post-qualifying training. Consequently, more effective training at all levels is required if social workers are to engage younger children successfully and facilitate their participation.

The aim of the research was to explore potential sources of support for children who are emotionally abused by their parent figures. Twelve children, aged 7-15 years, reflecting diversity within the UK population, acted as consultants. A questionnaire based on a vignette was developed with the advice of these 12 children and was sanctioned by ethics advisors. The questionnaire was distributed to 15 different schools and was completed by 2220 children aged 9-13 years. The respondents identified the extended family as the most important source of support, with grandparents achieving the highest scores. Two other prominent potential helpers were "a friend" and "ChildLine", a UK telephone helpline for children. Teachers, social workers, health professionals, religious figures and pets were also deemed important sources of assistance by the participants. The prominence of the extended family as a major support was consistent across the various pupil groups. This was an unanticipated finding because some schools were based in communities experiencing considerable dislocation or serving new migrant populations where extended families were no longer close to hand. The findings have implications for the management of cases of child emotional abuse.