BackgroundPathogenic water dwelling protozoa such as Acanthamoeba spp., Hartmannella spp., Naegleria spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. are often responsible for devastating illnesses especially in children and immunocompromised individuals, yet their presence and prevalence in certain environment in sub-Saharan Africa is still unknown to most researchers, public health officials and medical practitioners. The objective of this study was to establish the presence and prevalence of pathogenic free-living amoeba (FLA), Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Queen Elizabeth Protected Area (QEPA).MethodsSamples were collected from communal taps and natural water sites in QEPA. Physical water parameters were measured in situ. The samples were processed to detect the presence of FLA trophozoites by xenic cultivation, Cryptosporidium oocysts by Ziehl-Neelsen stain and Giardia cysts by Zinc Sulphate floatation technique. Parasites were observed microscopically, identified, counted and recorded. For FLA, genomic DNA was extracted for amplification and sequencing.ResultsBoth natural and tap water sources were contaminated with FLA, Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. All protozoan parasites were more abundant in the colder rainy season except for Harmannella spp. and Naegleria spp. which occurred more in the warmer months. The prevalence of all parasites was higher in tap water than in natural water samples. There was a strong negative correlation between the presence of Acanthamoeba spp., Hartmannella spp., Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. with Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (P < 0.05). The presence of Cryptosporidium spp. showed a significant positive correlation (P < 0.05) with conductivity, pH and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS); whereas the presence of Giardia spp. had only a strong positive correlation with TDS. Molecular genotyping of FLA produced 7 Acanthamoeba, 5 Echinamoeba, 2 Hartmannella, 1 Bodomorpha, 1 Nuclearia and 1 Cercomonas partial sequences.ConclusionsAll water collection sites were found to be contaminated with pathogenic protozoa that could possibly be the cause of a number of silent morbidities and mortalities among rural households in QEPA. This implies that water used by communities in QEPA is of poor quality and predisposes them to a variety of protozoan infections including the FLA whose public health importance was never reported, thus necessitating adoption of proper water safety measures.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40249-016-0162-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

BackgroundAcanthamoeba is an emerging potentially pathogenic amoeba that has been receiving increasing attention worldwide as a reservoir and potential vector for the transmission of pathogenic bacteria. It is also associated with brain cell damage, keratitis and skin irritation in humans. Its effects are more severe in immunocompromised individuals. This study provides for the first time in Uganda, information on the prevalence and genotypes of Acanthamoeba in environmental and domestic (tap) water.MethodsA total of 324 environmental and 84 tap water samples were collected between November 2013 and September 2014. The samples were centrifuged, cultured (Non-Nutrient agar seeded with gram-negative bacteria) and observed under a microscope. After confirmation of Acanthamoeba, genomic DNA was extracted for PCR assays by chemical lysis and purification with phenol/chloroform/isoamyl alcohol. Samples that showed the strongest positive bands (400–600 bp) were subjected to cycle sequencing.ResultsAmong environmental and tap water samples, 107 (33 %) and 36 (42.9 %) tested positive for Acanthamoeba spp., respectively. Prevalence of Acanthamoeba from specific environmental locations was as follows; Kazinga channel banks (60.7 %), Fish landing sites (50 %), River Kyambura (39.6 %) and Kazinga mid channel (5.3 %). There was a significant difference (p = 0.001) in the prevalence of Acanthamoeba between sampling sites. The mean (Mean ± SE) occurrence of the organism was higher in Kazinga channel banks (3.44 ± 0.49) and Fish landing sites (3.08 ± 0.53). Correlation between in situ parameters and Acanthamoeba was insignificant except for the Dissolved Oxygen (mg/ML) which was negatively correlated (r = −0.231, p = 0.001) to Acanthamoeba. Six distinct partial Acanthamoeba T-genotype groups T1, T2, T4, T5, T6 and T11 were obtained. Ultimately, Acanthamoeba spp., Acanthamoeba hatchetti and Acanthamoeba polyphaga were isolated in the current study.ConclusionsThere was a high prevalence of Acanthamoeba in communal piped tap and environmental water used by communities, indicating poor environmental and domestic water quality.

Without surveillance studies on mercury (Hg) levels in predominant fish species and parts eaten in a fishing community, the FAO/WHO guidelines might be surpassed, hence health risk. A monitoring study in a developing country with 29 Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) and 34 Lates niloticus (Nile perch) from landing sites provided muscle, bellyfat and liver samples for Mercury detection using Inductive Couple Plasma-optical emission spectroscopy. The study shows that fish eaten in the fishing community are small with fewer risks from mercury. Tilapia accumulated more mercury in muscle and liver than Nile perch. Fish consumed has mercury levels higher than FAO/WHO guidelines, and the bellyfat of Nile perch bioaccumulated more mercury than Tilapia. Based on the above, it is clear that some fish species should not be eaten by the vulnerable groups due to levels of Hg found in the muscle and bellyfat. This research will serve as a base for future studies, sensitization campaigns and policy design on mercury uptake through fish in fishing communities of developing countries.

ABSTRACT:Forty-eight free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus) were immobilized with xylazine (X) and tiletamine-zolazepam (TZ) by dart injection during winter 2008 in Norway. A follow-up study in five animals during winter 2010 included arterial blood samples analyzed with a portable clinical analyzer in the field. Thirty-five of 48 animals were effectively immobilized and 13 required a second dart. Mean6SD doses were 2.8960.45 mg X/kg and 2.8960.45 mg TZ/kg in calves and 2.9760.66 mg X/kg and 1.9160.43 mg TZ/kg in adults. Mean induction times for calves and adults were 8.565 min and 11.665.5 min, respectively. The main physiologic side effect during immobilization was hypoxemia (pulse oximetry, SpO 2 ,85%). All five animals evaluated with arterial blood gas samples were hypoxemic (PaO 2 ,10 kPa). Xylazine was antagonized with 0.4360.19 mg/kg and 0.2760.05 mg/ kg of atipamezole in calves and adults, respectively. Time to standing/walking in calves and adults was 1267 min and 12611 min, respectively. Two capture mortalities occurred.