No abstract

This article addresses a significant problem with transformative learning theory; namely, that it is increasingly being used to refer to almost any instance of learning. This article offers several points of clarity to resolve this problem. First, it portrays a subtle but important evolution in the way the theory has been used in the literature and, as a solution, positions transformative learning as an analytic metatheory. It then presents a typology of transformative learning outcomes as a conceptual tool scholars can use to describe learning phenomena. Finally, this article suggests a definition and criteria for transformative learning to provide parameters around the phenomena that the metatheory of transformative learning should address.

We conducted a systematic review of the contemporary scientific literature to (a) identify consensus, where it exists, regarding factors associated with membership in terrorist organizations and/or perpetration of terrorist attacks; (b) drive future research directions; and (c) inform evidence-based counterterrorism strategies. Systematic searches of 6 databases identified 205 articles that met inclusion criteria. Of these, 50 articles reported on findings of empirical research, 24 reported inferential statistics, and 6 of these compared characteristics of known terrorists to nonterrorists. Across various aspects of terrorism and terrorists (e.g., type of terrorist, attack type), articles rarely specified their focus. When examined factors typically focused on characteristics of the individual. Review of the empirical findings suggest 9 variables with at least some support for their association with terrorism: age, socioeconomic status, prior arrest, education, employment, relationship status, having a grievance, geographic locale, and type of geographic area. However, given the limitations of the research, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that any of these variables are empirically supported risk factors. Findings identified additional characteristics of an individual (i.e., country of birth, Islamic faith, military experience, foreign travel history, family or friend in a terrorist or extremist organization) and their environment (i.e., income inequality, media and government influences) that merit further evaluation. Findings also emphasized the importance of a triggering event. Finally, findings indicate that some widely accepted "risk" factors have limited empirical support for their association with terrorism. A focus on these factors might contribute to discrimination and reduce the effectiveness of counterterrorism strategies.

This is a response to “The Ethical Knower: Rethinking Our Pedagogy in the Age of Trump” by Elana Michelson. We appreciate Michelson’s critical evaluation of the appropriateness of transformative learning and the use of personal narrative, as well as the frames and tools she offers to help us deal with current challenges such as “epistemological chaos” in the “age of Trump.” Michelson’s distinction between epistemological and hermeneutic analysis, as well as her conception of meaning perspectives as social/cultural foundations of identity, are helpful insights. The educational practices she finds disturbing are indeed ineffective approaches to teaching, and we are inspired by her invitation directed to “us as a community to struggle toward a more honest assessment of how our field might better respond to the phenomena that led to the age of Trump.” In this response, we talk further about some points made in Michelson’s article, elaborating on several issues and offering alternative perspectives that we believe may be productive paths forward. We do this in three parts, by (a) engaging in a critique of some of Michelson’s statements and positions, (b) elaborating on the conceptions of transformative learning in practice, and (c) expanding on the discussion of epistemological and hermeneutic analysis.

This article is a report on research into the role of fiction in promoting transformative learning in higher education settings. Participants were 131 undergraduate and graduate students from two universities in the United States. To determine the type of learning promoted by reading fiction, we performed qualitative analyses on participants’ written reflections following a learning activity that included the reading of a fictional short story. Our major findings consisted of the following three categories: promoting change (with subcategories of promotes desire for change and stimulates change), new perspectives (with subcategories of opens eyes to new perspectives and opens new/more holistic perspectives), and fosters critical reflections. Supplementary findings were connections with personal experiences, emotional responses, and role models in the story. The types of learning described by our participants coincide with processes that promote transformative learning.