This paper reviews the empirical evidence of the effect of credibility of the message source on persuasion over a span of 5 decades, primarily to come up with recommendations for practitioners as to when to use a high-or a low-credibility source and secondarily to identify areas for future research. The main effect studies of source credibility on persuasion seem to indicate the superiority of a high-credibility source over a low-credibility one. Interaction effect studies, however, show source credibility to be a liability under certain conditions. The variables found to interact with source credibility are categorized into 5 categories: source, message, channel, receiver, and destination variables. The most heavily researched variables have been the message and receiver variables. Implications for marketerdadvertisers and suggestions for future research are discussed.Most studies that attempt to determine how to effectively persuade consumers are guided mainly by theories and empirical findings about attitude change or persuasion in social psychology. McGuire (1 978) identified five components of persuasive communication: source, message, channel, receiver, and destination variables. The source variables comprise three main aspects; namely, credibility, attractiveness, and power.For decades, marketers, advertisers, politicians, professionals of various areas, and researchers in many fields have tried to find out whether a high-or a low-credibility source will be more effective or will have no different effects in changing beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors of the audience. The objective of this paper is to review primarily published empirical evidence since 1950 from consumer behavior, social psychology, and related disciplines regarding source credibility effects on persuasion.First, the paper reviews past evidence of the main effects of source credibility. Next, it reviews the interactions between source credibility and other variables, which are categorized into five components: source variables, message variables, 244 CHANTHIKA PORNPITAKPAN channel variables, receiver variables, and destination variables. Following that, it suggests implications for marketerdadvertisers.By consolidating the findings from studies conducted over the past five decades, this paper puts forward many interesting ideas and implications for marketers/advertisers. In particular, the paper discusses when it would be optimal to employ a high-credibility source over a low-credibility source and vice versa, and what marketers should do to strengthen the persuasive impact of the advertisement once a high-credibility or a low-credibility source is selected. Finally, it identifies several gaps in the literature and suggests areas for future research.The dimensions of source credibility have been commonly identified to consist of expertise and trustworthiness. Expertise refers to the extent to which a speaker is perceived to be capable of making correct assertions, and trustworthiness refers to the degree to which an audience perceives the as...

Four types of animosity, the emotional antagonism felt toward a specific entity, were identified as a function of their sources (situational vs. stable) and locus (personal vs. national) of manifestation. A five-country survey was conducted in Asia to validate the typology, using the United States and Japan as target entities. Results affirmed the four-factor structure of the proposed typology. Several cross-national differences in animosity were also uncovered. Indonesians, Malaysians, and Thais tended to have greater situational animosity toward the United States than Japan, except for Koreans and Singaporeans. Not surprisingly, Koreans showed greater stable animosity toward Japan than the United States. Asians also demonstrated a higher level of animosity at the national than personal level. Implications arising from the findings are discussed and directions for future research suggested.

The nature, antecedents, and consequences of consumer animosity during the 1997 Asian economic crisis are investigated, based on a large-scale survey of 2000 adult consumers representative of five affected nations (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, and Thailand). An animosity model was developed and tested with the US and Japan as target countries. As predicted, stable and situational animosity reduced willingness to buy products from a perceived hostile national entity. Affective evaluations and cognitive judgments were negatively influenced by situational animosity but not by stable animosity. As expected, situational animosity was increased by external attribution, perceived external control, and stable animosity. Implications of these findings are discussed, and directions for future research suggested. Journal of International Business Studies (2008) 39, 996–1009. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400392

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Morningness scales have been translated into several languages, but a lack of normative data and methodological differences make cross-cultural comparisons difficult. This study examines the psychometric properties and factor structure of the Composite Scale of Morningness (CSM) in samples from five countries: France (n = 627), Italy (n = 702), Spain (n = 391), Thailand (n = 503), and Australia (n = 654). Strong national differences are identified. A quadratic relationship between age and CSM total score was apparent in the Australian data with a downward trend after age 35 yrs. There was no age effect in any sample in the range from 18 to 29 yrs. Factor analysis identified a three-factor solution in all groups for both men and women. Tucker's congruence coefficients indicate that: (1) this solution is highly congruent between sexes in each culture, and (2) a morning affect factor is highly congruent between cultures. These results indicate there are national differences in factorial structure and that cut-off scores used to categorize participants as morning- and evening-types should be established for different cultural and age groups.