Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 PUFAs), which are essential fatty acids that humans should obtain from diet, have potential benefits for human health. In addition to altering the structure and function of cell membranes, omega-3 PUFAs (docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA)) exert different effects on intestinal immune tolerance and gut microbiota maintenance. Firstly, we review the effect of omega-3 PUFAs on gut microbiota. And the effects of omega-3 PUFAs on intestinal immunity and inflammation were described. Furthermore, the important roles of omega-3 PUFAs in maintaining the balance between gut immunity and the gut microbiota were discussed. Additional factors, such as obesity and diseases (NAFLD, gastrointestinal malignancies or cancer, bacterial and viral infections), which are associated with variability in omega-3 PUFA metabolism, can influence omega-3 PUFAs–microbiome–immune system interactions in the intestinal tract and also play roles in regulating gut immunity. This review identifies several pathways by which the microbiota modulates the gut immune system through omega-3 PUFAs. Omega-3 supplementation can be targeted to specific pathways to prevent and alleviate intestinal diseases, which may help researchers identify innovative diagnostic methods.

BackgroundUnderstanding the genetic basis of adaptation to high altitude life is of paramount importance for preserving and managing genetic diversity in highland animals. This objective has been addressed mainly in terrestrial fauna but rarely in aquatic animals. Tibetan Schizothoracinae fish is the ideal model system in evolutionary biology, carrying key insights into evolutionary genetics of speciation and adaptation at high altitude. Gymnocypris przewalskii is the newly formed Schizothoracinae fish species in the Tibetan Plateau, inhabits chronic cold, extreme saline and alkaline aquatic environment in Lake Qinghai, thus evolving the unique genomic signatures to adapt extremely severe environments.ResultsTo characterize its genomic features, we assembled de novo transcriptome of G. przewalskii from Lake Qinghai. Intriguingly, by comparative genomic analyses of G. przewalskii and 8 other fish species, we identified potential expansions in gene families related to energy metabolism, transport and developmental functions, possibly underlying the adaptation to these environmental stresses. Through comprehensive molecular evolution analyses, we found that sets of genes controlling mitochondrion, ion homoeostasis, acid-base balance and innate immunity show significant signals of positive selection. Compared to previous studies on highland fishes, we failed to identify any positively selected genes related to hypoxia response.ConclusionsOur findings provide comprehensive insights into the genetic basis of teleost fish that underlie their adaptation to extreme high altitude aquatic life on the Tibetan Plateau.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0925-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Divergent selection among environments affects species distributions and can lead to speciation. In this article, we investigated the transcriptomes of two ecotypes of scaleless carp (Gymnocypris przewalskii przewalskii and G. p. ganzihonensis) from the Tibetan Plateau. We used a transcriptome sequencing approach to screen approximately 250,000 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) from the gill and kidney tissues of twelve individuals from the Ganzi River and Lake Qinghai to understand how this freshwater fish has adapted to an ecological niche shift from saline to freshwater. We identified 9,429 loci in the gill transcriptome and 12,034 loci in the kidney transcriptome with significant differences in their expression, of which 242 protein-coding genes exhibited strong positive selection (Ka/Ks > 1). Many of the genes are involved in ion channel functions (e.g., Ca2+-binding proteins), immune responses (e.g., nephrosin) or cellular water absorption functions (e.g., aquaporins). These results have potentially broad importance in understanding shifts from saline to freshwater habitats. Furthermore, this study provides the first transcriptome of G. przewalskii, which will facilitate future ecological genomics studies and aid in the identification of genes underlying adaptation and incipient ecological speciation.