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Purpose -Previous studies have looked at how socio-economic and political factors play a role in consumers' ethical positions, but few have considered the role of religion which is a major driver of ethics. This paper seeks to address this. Design/methodology/approach -From a survey of over 700 consumers this paper explores the similarities and differences between consumers' ethical positions in three different religions namely; Christian (from three countries), Islam, and Buddhism. Findings -It was found that a reduced item scale measuring the two factors of Forsyth's idealism and relativism was applicable in all five religions, but variations were seen because of religious teachings. In particular, Austrian Christians were significantly less idealistic and relativistic than all other religions, even other Christians from the United States and Britain.Research limitations/implications -The results have implications for measuring ethical positions internationally and for developing ethically based marketing messages and products. Originality/value -The paper shows for the first time how ethical positions are affected by religions and should be of interest to marketers involved in ethics research and ethical marketing.

Purpose-We aim to develop a definition of brand addiction and a valid brand addiction scale (BASCALE). Design/methodology/approach-We used focus-group results to define brand addiction and generate items for the BASCALE, and validated the BASCALE with survey data collected in the UK. Findings-Based on the eleven brand-addiction features found from the focus groups, we define brand addition as an individual consumer's psychological state that pertains to a selfbrand relationship manifested in daily life and involving positive affectivity and gratification with a particular brand and constant urges for possessing the brand's products/services. Based on the survey study, we have established a valid 10-item brand addiction scale (BASCALE). Research limitations/implications-Due to the survey's setting in the fashion context in the UK, we do not intend to generalize the results to other product types and countries. Future research should replicate and refine the BASCALE in different brand categories and different countries. Practical implications-The BASCALE can serve marketers in the behavioral segmentation and assist brand managers to identify brand addict consumers and maintain long-term relationships with them. Originality/value-We have developed a definition of brand addiction and a valid brand addiction scale (BASCALE), which one can use for a wide range of theoretical and empirical research in the marketing and psychology fields. The definition and BASCALE also serve to

Purpose – Marketing research has focussed more on in-group favoritism and out-group derogation (i.e. ethnocentrism) than out-group favoritism and in-group derogation (i.e. xenocentrism). The purpose of this paper is to explore the xenocentric behavior in the consumer sphere to explain why some consumers have a bias for foreign products even when domestic ones are qualitatively similar or better. As the Chinese economy has experienced more than three decades of near double-digit growth and increased openness to foreign products, it is important to examine phenomena related to the formation of Chinese attitudes toward foreign products with the rising tensions between the seemingly irreversible globalization and Chinese re-awakening nationalism. Design/methodology/approach – This study is based on a review of the extant literature and focus groups in three cities in China. Findings – This study has found that consumer xenocentrism (CX) is prevalent in China, especially among the new emerging wealthy classes, younger consumers, and the local elite. It appears that Chinese consumers are psychologically or sociologically orientated or predisposed toward foreign (Western) goods. The findings from this study suggest that both consumer ethnocentrism and CX are possible or even expected. The short review of Chinese history presented here has shown that these phenomena can be explained by traditional in-group/out-group theories. Specifically, when there are too many xenocentrics, national esteem is threatened and this prompts many individuals to become more ethnocentric. Research limitations/implications – This study is based on the literature and focus groups data, hence, the findings are not intended to be generalizable. Practical implications – The findings from this study should be of interest to business practitioners and policy makers. Social implications – The historical and cultural perspectives taken in this study indicate that understanding consumers’ xenocentric behavior entails knowledge and deep understanding of how cultural values and contemporary social-political forces interplay within consumers’ formation and change of attitudes toward the choice of domestic and foreign products. Originality/value – This study shows that the ability of foreign products to meet the individual’s need or enhance his/her self-esteem more so than domestic products is indicative of something more than simply an international, cosmopolitan, or modern orientation. The fact that consumer foreign bias is found with both mundane and widely available products, expensive and inexpensive products, and conspicuous and non-conspicuous goods challenges the assumption that this phenomenon is simply traditional prestige-consumption behavior. Future research needs to be directed at measuring the CX construct and examine potential antecedents of such a behavior.