Two predictions derived from Ellis's (1963) stimulus trace (st) deficit theory were tested with equal CA (approximately 9 years) normal and retarded children in a digit recall task. Length of recall interval (0 vs 8 sec.) and intensity level of the aurally presented items (55 vs 90 db) were varied factorially. All of the material was taped and received by subjects through earphones. Contrary to Ellis's theoretical predictions, the two IQ groups demonstrated parallel retention functions, and the performance of neither group was affected by the intensity manipulation.

Research and application of principles of behavior modification with visually impaired and blind children are reviewed with particular attention to lower functioning multiply impaired children. Coverage focuses on assessment of residual visual and auditory functioning, management of stereotyped and disruptive behavior, and self-help and motor-skill training. Descriptions of applications and suggestions for further research are outlined.

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The present study examined the risk-taking propensities of 30 boys and 30 girls of mildly retarded intelligence (Mia = 6 8 ) in special education classes, and equal numbers of nonretarded youngsters of comparable mental ages in Grades 3 to 5. Predictions based on Atkinson and Feather's (1966) achievement-motivation model, a presumed low expectancy of success among the retarded, and Cromwell's (1963) review, suggesting failureavoidance behaviors bv the retarded. were that retarded children would take fewer risks than the nonretarded in a simple game of chance involving no motor skill. A praise condition was included as it was of interest to determine if social reward for performance would increase the number of risks taken.A switch game similar to that employed by Slovic (1966) and West, Fretz, and Mac-Donald (1970) was used to measure risk-tahng. The device consisted of a vertical panel with 1 0 horizontally positioned toggle switches, nine of which were said to be "good," and a tenth (unspecified) was designated "bad." A penny could be won for each "good" switch flipped on, but if the "bad" switch was hit a buzzer was to sound and all pennies won so far lost. Ss were told that they could stop playing whenever they wished and keep the pennies they had accumulated. Two practice trials were given and for each the "bad" switch was randomly selected by E. Each S was encouraged to flip the switches until the buzzer sounded as there were no pennies to lose. The buzzer was thereafter disconnected (unknown to the child) and two test trials were given. For the first trial, no youngster received praise, but on the second trial one-half of the Ss from each IQ group wrrc glveri social praise for each "good" switch flipped on while the remaining Ss were not prased, as in Trial 1. Scores could range from 0 to 9 ( 9 "good" switches).Surprisingly, the results indicated extremely high levels of risk-taking by both IQ groups. The mean risk-taking score over the two trials was 8.5 for the nonretarded and 8.8 for the retarded. Only 32% of the nonretarded and 15% of the retarded children voluntarily quit o n at least one of the two trials before flipping on all nine switches. N o significant effects of IQ were obtained for Trial 1 ( n o praise) nor did analysis of difference scores (Trial 2 minus Trial 1) indicate reliable main effects or interactions with praise, perhaps due to "ceiling" effects. Pooled Trial 1 and Trial 2 data, however, did indicate significantly higher risk-taking scores for the retarded than for the nonretarded (F = 4.8, d f = 1/119, p < .05). Further, comparison of the number of Ss who voluntarily quit on at least one of the two trials versus those who did not showed that the nonretarded quit more often than the retarded ( x 3 = 4.6, d f = 1, P < .05). N o reliable sex differences were obtained in any analysis. Thus, in certain risk situations, retarded boys and girls take as many or more risks than do the nonretarded of equal mental age. A potentially fruitful direction for research is the manipulation of magn...

The task of pulling 2 levers for marble rewards was given to 72 retarded and 72 nonretarded children matched for mental age (approximately 7 yr.). Half of the children were given a pretraining task on which they experienced success and the other half a control pretraining procedure. On the lever pulling task half the Ss received 50% reward on the first lever and the other half 100% reward on the first lever, both groups being always rewarded after pulling the second lever. Rewarded pretraining led to a slowing down of starting speeds on both levers which was more marked in retarded than in nonretarded children. For nonretarded Ss the 50% reinforcement condition led to consistently faster responding on both levers, but this partial reward superiority was seen in retarded Ss only on the early trials. Interpretations of these effects in terms of Amsel's theory of frustrative nonreward and Zigler's concept of a retardate negative reaction tendency were offered.