This study established the in vitro activity of ceftolozane/tazobactam (C/T) and its genotypic resistance mechanisms by whole-genome sequencing (WGS) in 195 carbapenem-nonsusceptible Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CNSPA) clinical isolates recovered from Singapore between 2009 and 2020. C/T susceptibility rates were low, at 37.9%. Cross-resistance to ceftazidime/avibactam was observed, although susceptibility to the agent was slightly higher, at 41.0%. Whole-genome sequencing revealed that C/T resistance was largely mediated by the presence of horizontally acquired β-lactamases, especially metallo-β-lactamases. These were primarily disseminated in well-recognized high-risk clones belonging to sequence types (ST) 235, 308, and 179. C/T resistance was also observed in several non-carbapenemase-producing isolates, in which resistance was likely mediated by β-lactamases and, to a smaller extent, mutations in AmpC-related genes. There was no obvious mechanism of resistance observed in five isolates. The high C/T resistance highlights the limited utility of the agent as an empirical agent in our setting. Knowledge of local molecular epidemiology is crucial in determining the potential of therapy with novel agents. IMPORTANCE Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection is one of the most difficult health care-associated infections to treat due to the ability of the organism to acquire a multitude of resistance mechanisms and express the multidrug resistance phenotype. Ceftolozane/tazobactam (C/T), a novel β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combination, addresses an unmet medical need in patients with these multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa infections. Our findings demonstrate geographical variation in C/T susceptibility owing to the distinct local molecular epidemiology. This study adds on to the growing knowledge of C/T resistance, particularly mutational resistance, and will aid in the design of future β-lactams and β-lactamase inhibitors. WGS proved to be a useful tool to understand the P. aeruginosa resistome and its contribution to emerging resistance in novel antimicrobial agents.

In this study, we characterized carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae clinical isolates collected over a 12-year period in the largest public acute-care hospital in Singapore using whole-genome sequencing. The results of this study demonstrate significant genomic diversity with the presence of well-known epidemic, multidrug-resistant clones amid a diverse pool of nonepidemic lineages.

Genomic Characterisation of Carbapenem Non-susceptible Pseudomonas aeruginosa in SingaporePseudomonas aeruginosa is a clinically important pathogen implicated in many hospitalacquired infections. Its propensity to acquire broad-spectrum resistance has earned the organism its status as a severe public health threat requiring urgent control measures.While whole genome sequencing-based genomic surveillance provides a mean to track antimicrobial resistance, its use in molecular epidemiological surveys of Pseudomonas aeruginosa remains limited, especially in the Southeast Asian region. We sequenced the whole genomes of 222 carbapenem non-susceptible P. aeruginosa (CNPA) isolates collected in 2006-2020 at the largest public acute care hospital in Singapore . Antimicrobial susceptibilities were determined using broth microdilution. Clonal relatedness, multi-locus sequence types and antimicrobial resistance determina nts (acquired and chromosomal) were determined. In this study, CNPA exhibited broadspectrum resistance (87.8% multi-drug resistance), retaining susceptibility only to polymyxin B (95.0%) and amikacin (55.0%). Carbapenemases were detected in 51.4% of the isolates, where IMP and NDM metallo-β-lactamases were the most frequent.Carbapenem resistance was also likely associated with OprD alterations or efflux mechanisms (ArmZ/NalD mutations), which occurred in strains with or without carbapenemases. The population of CNPA in the hospital was diverse; the 222 isolates grouped into 68 sequence types (ST), which includes various high-risk clones. We detected an emerging clone, the NDM-1-producing ST308, in addition to the global highrisk ST235 clone which was the predominant clone in our population. Our results thus provide a "snapshot" of the circulating lineages of CNPA locally and the prevailing 4 genetic mechanisms contributing to carbapenem resistance. This database also serves as the baseline for future prospective surveillance studies.