Background Cholestatic liver diseases can be caused by genetic defects, drug toxicities, hepatobiliary malignancies or obstruction of the biliary tract. Cholestasis leads to accumulation of bile acids (BAs) in hepatocytes. Direct toxicity of BAs is currently the most accepted hypothesis for cholestatic liver injury. However, information on which bile acids are actually accumulating during cholestasis is limited. Aims Assess BA composition in liver and serum after bile duct ligation (BDL) in male C57Bl/6 mice between 6 h and 14 days and evaluate toxicity of most abundant BAs. Results BA concentrations increased in liver (27-fold) and serum (1400-fold) within 6 h after surgery and remained elevated up to 14 days. BAs in livers of BDL mice became more hydrophilic than sham controls, mainly due to increased 6β-hydroxylation and taurine conjugation. Among the 8 unconjugated and 16 conjugated BAs identified in serum and liver, only taurocholic acid (TCA), β-muricholic acid (βMCA) and TβMCA were substantially elevated representing >95% of these BAs over the entire time course. Although glycochenodeoxycholic acid and other conjugated BAs increased in BDL animals, the changes were several orders of magnitude lower compared to TCA, βMCA and TβMCA. A mixture of these BAs did not cause apoptosis or necrosis but induced inflammatory gene expression in cultured murine hepatocytes. Conclusion The concentrations of cytotoxic BAs are insufficient to cause hepatocellular injury. In contrast, TCA, βMCA and TβMCA are able to induce pro-inflammatory mediators in hepatocytes. Thus, BAs act as inflammagens and not as cytotoxic mediators after BDL in mice.

2-Arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG) is an endogenous arachidonic acid derivative that binds cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 and is hence termed an endocannabinoid. 2-AG also modulates a variety of immunological responses, including expression of the autocrine/paracrine T cell growth factor interleukin (IL)-2. The objective of the present studies was to determine the mechanism responsible for IL-2 suppression by 2-AG. Because of the labile properties of 2-AG, 2-AG ether, a nonhydrolyzable analog of 2-AG, was also used. Both 2-AG and 2-AG ether suppressed IL-2 expression independently of CB1 and CB2, as demonstrated in leukocytes derived from CB1/CB2-null mice. Moreover, we demonstrated that both 2-AG and 2-AG ether treatment activated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ␥ (PPAR␥), as evidenced by forced differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells into adipocytes, induction of aP2 mRNA levels, and activation of a PPAR␥-specific luciferase reporter in transiently transfected 3T3-L1 cells. Consequently, the putative role of PPAR␥ in IL-2 suppression by 2-AG and 2-AG ether was examined in Jurkat T cells. Concordant with PPAR␥ involvement, the PPAR␥-specific antagonist 2-chloro-5-nitro-N-(4-pyridyl)-benzamide (T0070907) blocked 2-AG-and 2-AG ether-mediated IL-2 suppression. Likewise, 2-AG suppressed the transcriptional activity of two transcription factors crucial for IL-2 expression, nuclear factor of activated T cells and nuclear factor B, in the absence but not in the presence of T0070907. 2-AG treatment also induced PPAR␥ binding to a PPAR response element in activated Jurkat T cells. Together, the aforementioned studies identify PPAR␥ as a novel intracellular target of 2-AG, which mediates the suppression of IL-2 by 2-AG in a manner that is independent of CB1 and/or CB2.

The use of the chemotherapeutic drug cisplatin is limited in part by nephrotoxicity. Cisplatin causes renal DNA adducts and oxidative stress in rodents. The transcription factor Nrf2 (nuclear factor E2-related factor 2) induces expression of cytoprotective genes, including Nqo1 (NADPH:quinone oxidoreductase 1), Ho-1 (heme oxygenase-1), and Gclc (glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit), in response to electrophilic and oxidative stress. In the present study, plasma and kidneys from wild-type and Nrf2-null mice were collected after receiving cisplatin for evaluation of renal injury, inflammation, mRNA, and protein expression. Compared with wild types, more extensive nephrotoxicity was observed in Nrf2-null mice after cisplatin treatment. Kidneys from Nrf2-null mice treated with cisplatin had more neutrophil infiltration accompanied by increased p65 nuclear factor B binding and elevated inflammatory mediator mRNA levels. Cisplatin increased renal mRNA and protein expression of cytoprotective genes (Nqo1, Ho-1, Gclc) and transporters Mrp2 and Mrp4 in wild-type but not in Nrf2-null mice. Lastly, the Nrf2 activator, CDDO-Im [2-cyano-3,12-dioxooleana-1,9-dien-28-oic imidazolide], increased Nrf2 signaling in kidneys from wild-type mice and protected them from cisplatin toxicity. Collectively, these data indicate that the absence of Nrf2 exacerbates cisplatin renal damage and that pharmacological activation of Nrf2 may represent a novel therapy to prevent kidney injury. Coordinated regulation of detoxification enzymes and drug transporters and suppression of inflammation by Nrf2 during cisplatin nephrotoxicity are probable defense mechanisms to eliminate toxic mediators and promote proximal tubule recovery.

Nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor that mediates the upregulation of a battery of cytoprotective genes in response to cell stress. Recent studies have shown that Nrf2 also modulates immune responses and exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. In this report, we demonstrate that a common food preservative, tBHQ, can activate Nrf2 in T cells, as evidenced by Nrf2 binding to the antioxidant response element (ARE) and the subsequent upregulation of Nrf2 target genes. The activation of Nrf2 suppresses IFNγ production, while inducing the production of the Th2 cytokines, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13. Nrf2 activation also suppresses T-bet DNA binding and promotes GATA-3 DNA binding. Collectively, the present studies suggest that Nrf2 activation skews CD4+ T cells toward Th2 differentiation and thus represents a novel regulatory mechanism in CD4+ T cells. Further studies will be needed to determine whether the commercial use of Nrf2 activators as food preservatives promotes food allergies in humans.

Arachidonyl ethanolamine, which is commonly known as anandamide, was the first endogenous compound to be identified that binds to the cannabinoid receptors. Anandamide mimics many of the physiological effects of ⌬ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (⌬ 9 -THC), including hypothermia, antinociception, immobility, catalepsy, and immune modulation. In the present studies, we show that anandamide caused a concentration-dependent inhibition of interleukin-2 in primary splenocytes. The CB1 and CB2 antagonists,, when used in combination, did not antagonize the inhibition of interleukin-2 by anandamide. Additionally, neither UCM707 [N-(3-furanylmethyl)-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenamide], the inhibitor of the putative anandamide membrane transporter (AMT), nor methyl arachidonoyl fluorophosphonate (MAFP), the inhibitor of fatty acid amidohydrolase (FAAH), were able to affect the inhibitory activity of anandamide upon interleukin-2.Interestingly, arachidonic acid caused a concentration-dependent inhibition of interleukin-2 secretion (IC 50 ϭ 10.3 M), which was similar to that of structurally related anandamide (IC 50 ϭ 11.4 M). The inhibition of interleukin-2 by anandamide and arachidonic acid was partially reversed by pretreatment with the nonspecific cyclooxygenase inhibitors, flurbiprofen and piroxicam. Moreover, NS398 [N-[2-(cyclohexyloxy)-4-nitrophenyl]-methanesulfonamide], a cyclooxygenase-2-specific inhibitor, also attenuated the inhibitory effects of anandamide and arachidonic acid upon interleukin-2 secretion. Finally, pretreatment with a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ␥ (PPAR␥)-specific antagonist, T0070907 [2-chloro-5-nitro-N-4-pyridinyl-benzamide], partially antagonized anandamide-mediated suppression of IL-2 secretion. Collectively, the aforementioned studies suggest that inhibition of interleukin-2 secretion by anandamide is independent of CB1/ CB2 and the AMT/FAAH system. Additionally, these studies also suggest that inhibition of interleukin-2 is mediated by a PPAR␥, which is activated by a cyclooxygenase-2 metabolite of anandamide.