Only a small subset of all the transcribed RNAs are used as a template for protein translation, whereas RNA molecules that are not translated play a very important role as regulatory non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Besides traditionally known RNAs (ribosomal and transfer RNAs), ncRNAs also include small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). The lncRNAs, which were initially thought to be junk, have gained a great deal attention because of their regulatory roles in diverse biological processes in animals and plants. Insects are the most abundant and diverse group of animals on this planet. Recent studies have demonstrated the role of lncRNAs in almost all aspects of insect development, reproduction, and genetic plasticity. In this review, we describe the function and molecular mechanisms of the mode of action of different insect lncRNAs discovered up to date.

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Waprin, first discovered in snake venom, is an extracellular secretory protein known for its antibacterial activity. Analysis of sex-specific transcriptomes of adultTribolium castaneumled to the identification of a female-specific Waprin protein gene (Tc_WapF) which expresses only in female adults. Knockdown ofTc_WapFdidnt show any effect in the same generation, but the eggs laid byTc_WapFknockdown females failed to develop/hatch. No expression ofTc_WapFwas detected inTriboliumembryos, hence considering the antibacterial properties of Waprin proteins and the failure of hatching of eggs laid byTc_WapFknockdown females, we assume the involvement ofTc_WapFin protecting the embryos from the environmental pathogens.Tc_WapFis not regulated by sex determination pathway ofT. castaneumas the expression ofTc_WapFwas not changed upon the knockdown of sex determination pathway genes ofT. castaneum. Further, we also identified two morewapringenes ofT. castaneumexpressing in a non-sex specific manner at all the developmental stages. To the best of our knowledge this study is the first attempt to characterize the developmental role ofwapringenes in any insect. The study presented here provides an opportunity to probe the potential ofTriboliumWaprin proteins as non-conventional antimicrobials.

Effector proteins, one of the major insect salivary gland components, alter host defence mechanism(s) and facilitate pests for successful infestation of host plant. Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperdais a polyphagous lepidopteran insect infesting a wide range of agricultural crops. Despite being one of the world’s deadliest pests, no information about the effector proteins of S. frugiperda is available, till date. Therefore, in this study, we have performed an in silico analysis of interproscan-annotated protein sequences of S. frugiperda (derived from its transcriptome) using established secretome prediction pipelines. Out of 21,779protein sequences of S. frugiperda, 821 proteins were predicted to be secretory in nature, leading to the generation of an in silico secretome database of S. frugiperda. The proteins of S. frugiperda secretome were categorised into different functional groups as per their annotated functions. The expression of 40 selected candidates was analysed in different tissues (head, gut, salivary gland and fat body) of S. frugiperda, which revealed 14 candidates to be exclusive to a single tissue. In addition, expression of 13 candidates were found to be exclusive to gut or salivary glands or to both the tissues indicating that they may be secreted out from the insect's body and serve as potential effector proteins. The study described here is the first report of S. frugiperda's secretome prediction which will help in the identification of candidates which are secretory in nature, ultimately opening the door to the identification of possible effector proteins of S. frugiperda.