It remains unsettled whether human language relies exclusively on innately privileged brain structure in the left hemisphere or is more flexibly shaped through experiences, which induce neuroplastic changes in potentially relevant neural circuits. Here we show that learning of second language (L2) vocabulary and its cessation can induce bidirectional changes in the mirror-reverse of the traditional language areas. A cross-sectional study identified that gray matter volume in the inferior frontal gyrus pars opercularis (IFGop) and connectivity of the IFGop with the caudate nucleus and the superior temporal gyrus/supramarginal (STG/SMG), predominantly in the right hemisphere, were positively correlated with L2 vocabulary competence. We then implemented a cohort study involving 16 weeks of L2 training in university students. Brain structure before training did not predict the later gain in L2 ability. However, training intervention did increase IFGop volume and reorganization of white matter including the IFGop-caudate and IFGop-STG/SMG pathways in the right hemisphere. These "positive" plastic changes were correlated with the gain in L2 ability in the trained group but were not observed in the control group. We propose that the right hemispheric network can be reorganized into language-related areas through usedependent plasticity in young adults, reflecting a repertoire of flexible reorganization of the neural substrates responding to linguistic experiences.

The results demonstrate that the alpha1d-AR subtype has an important role in regulating bladder function. They theoretically support a clinical finding that alpha1-blockers with significant affinity for alpha1d-AR are effective for treating storage symptoms associated with benign prostatic obstruction.

Rationale It is unknown if every ventricular myocyte expresses all 5 of the cardiac adrenergic receptors (ARs), beta-1, beta-2, beta-3, alpha-1A, and alpha-1B. The beta-1 and beta-2 are thought to be the dominant myocyte ARs. Objective Quantify the 5 cardiac ARs in individual ventricular myocytes. Methods and Results We studied ventricular myocytes from wild type mice, mice with alpha-1A and alpha-1B knockin reporters, and beta-1 and beta-2 knockout mice. Using individual isolated cells, we measured knockin reporters, mRNAs, signaling (phosphorylation of ERK and phospholamban), and contraction. We found that the beta-1 and alpha-1B were present in all myocytes. The alpha-1A was present in 60%, with high levels in 20%. The beta-2 and beta-3 were detected in only about 5% of myocytes, mostly in different cells. In intact heart, 30% of total beta-ARs were beta-2 and 20% were beta-3, both mainly in nonmyocytes. Conclusion The dominant ventricular myocyte ARs present in all cells are the beta-1 and alpha-1B. The beta-2 and beta-3 are mostly absent in myocytes but are abundant in nonmyocytes. The alpha-1A is in just over half of cells, but only 20% have high levels. Four distinct myocyte AR phenotypes are defined: 30% of cells with beta-1 and alpha-1B only; 60% that also have the alpha-1A; and 5% each that also have the beta-2 or beta-3. The results raise cautions in experimental design, such as receptor overexpression in myocytes that do not express the AR normally. The data suggest new paradigms in cardiac adrenergic signaling mechanisms.