Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy in American men, and a more aggressive form of the disease is particularly prevalent among African Americans. The therapeutic success rate for prostate cancer can be tremendously improved if the disease is diagnosed early. Thus, a successful therapy for this disease depends heavily on the clinical indicators (biomarkers) for early detection of the presence and progression of the disease, as well as the prediction after the clinical intervention. However, the current clinical biomarkers for prostate cancer are not ideal as there remains a lack of reliable biomarkers that can specifically distinguish between those patients who should be treated adequately to stop the aggressive form of the disease and those who should avoid overtreatment of the indolent form.A biomarker is a characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biologic processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention. A biomarker reveals further information to presently existing clinical and pathological analysis. It facilitates screening and detecting the cancer, monitoring the progression of the disease, and predicting the prognosis and survival after clinical intervention. A biomarker can also be used to evaluate the process of drug development, and, optimally, to improve the efficacy and safety of cancer treatment by enabling physicians to tailor treatment for individual patients. The form of the prostate cancer biomarkers can vary from metabolites and chemical products present in body fluid to genes and proteins in the prostate tissues.Current advances in molecular techniques have provided new tools facilitating the discovery of new biomarkers for prostate cancer. These emerging biomarkers will be beneficial and critical in developing new and clinically reliable indicators that will have a high specificity for the diagnosis and prognosis of prostate cancer. The purpose of this review is to examine the current status of prostate cancer biomarkers, with special emphasis on emerging markers, by evaluating their diagnostic and prognostic potentials. Both genes and proteins that reveal loss, mutation, or variation in expression between normal prostate and cancerous prostate tissues will be covered in this article. Along with the discovery of prostate cancer biomarkers, we will describe the criteria used when selecting potential biomarkers for further development towards clinical use. In addition, we will address how to appraise and validate candidate markers for prostate cancer and some relevant issues involved in these processes. We will also discuss the new concept of the biomarkers, existing challenges, and perspectives of biomarker development.

Angiogenesis is a significant event in a wide range of healthy and diseased conditions. This process frequently involves vasodilation and an increase in vascular permeability. Numerous players referred to as angiogenic factors, work in tandem to facilitate the outgrowth of endothelial cells (EC) and the consequent vascularity. Conversely, angiogenic factors could also feature in pathological conditions. Angiogenesis is a critical factor in the development of tumors and metastases in numerous cancers. An increased level of angiogenesis is associated with decreased survival in breast cancer patients. Therefore, a good understanding of the angiogenic mechanism holds a promise of providing effective treatments for breast cancer progression, thereby enhancing patients' survival. Disrupting the initiation and progression of this process by targeting angiogenic factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (Vegf)-one of the most potent member of the VEGF family-or by targeting transcription factors, such as Hypoxia-Inducible Factors (HIFs) that act as angiogenic regulators, have been considered potential treatment options for several types of cancers. The objective of this review is to highlight the mechanism of angiogenesis in diseases, specifically its role in the progression of malignancy in breast cancer, as well as to highlight the undergoing research in the development of angiogenesis-targeting therapies.

HSP90 is a vital chaperone protein conserved across all organisms. As a chaperone protein, it correctly folds client proteins. Structurally, this protein is a dimer with monomer subunits that consist of three main conserved domains known as the N-terminal domain, middle domain, and the C-terminal domain. Multiple isoforms of HSP90 exist, and these isoforms share high homology. These isoforms are present both within the cell and outside the cell. Isoforms HSP90α and HSP90β are present in the cytoplasm; TRAP1 is present in the mitochondria; and GRP94 is present in the endoplasmic reticulum and is likely secreted due to post-translational modifications (PTM). HSP90 is also secreted into an extracellular environment via an exosome pathway that differs from the classic secretion pathway. Various co-chaperones are necessary for HSP90 to function. Elevated levels of HSP90 have been observed in patients with cancer. Despite this observation, the possible role of HSP90 in cancer was overlooked because the chaperone was also present in extreme amounts in normal cells and was vital to normal cell function, as observed when the drastic adverse effects resulting from gene knockout inhibited the production of this protein. Differences between normal HSP90 and HSP90 of the tumor phenotype have been better understood and have aided in making the chaperone protein a target for cancer drugs. One difference is in the conformation: HSP90 of the tumor phenotype is more susceptible to inhibitors. Since overexpression of HSP90 is a factor in tumorigenesis, HSP90 inhibitors have been studied to combat the adverse effects of HSP90 overexpression. Monotherapies using HSP90 inhibitors have shown some success; however, combination therapies have shown better results and are thus being studied for a more effective cancer treatment.

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death across the world. Although conventional cancer treatments such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy have effectively decreased cancer progression, they come with many dose-limiting side-effects. Phytochemicals that naturally occur in spices, fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, and other common foods are surprisingly effective complements to conventional cancer treatments. These biologically active compounds demonstrate anticancer effects via cell signaling pathway interference in cancerous cells. In addition, phytochemicals protect non-cancerous cells from chemotherapy-induced side-effects. This paper addresses the not only the potential of phytochemicals quercetin, isoflavones, curcumin, catechins, and hesperidin in terms of cancer treatment and protection against side-effects of chemotherapy, but also methods for increasing phytochemical bioavailability.

RNA interference through the use of short interfering molecules known as short interfering RNA (siRNA) has the potential to greatly advance research in treatments for many diseases because it has the ability to silence the expression of specific genes by helping degrade target mRNA. However, challenges to siRNA delivery have made the development of safe and effective delivery systems paramount in siRNA research. Various types of delivery systems have been proposed and investigated for siRNA delivery and therapy. Although viral vectors have been established to be the most effective in delivering siRNA molecules, they also raise many concerns over biosafety, especially concerning immunogenicity. Therefore, many researchers have begun to investigate and study non-viral vectors. Non-viral vectors are studied because they are typically considered to be safer than viral vectors albeit less efficient as well. The three general non-viral vectors that have been studied for siRNA delivery are lipid-based, non-lipid organic-based, and non-lipid inorganic-based carriers. Within those general parameters of non-viral vector classification are subtypes that are each unique with their own characteristic benefits and downsides. Many of these carriers, as well as even naked siRNA, do have the potential to be modified so that siRNA delivery could be further enhanced with benefits such as greater stability and duration. Researchers still must be wary with alterations as to not interfere with siRNA function. Currently, widespread siRNA therapeutics are still out of reach, but as more advancements in siRNA research including research on their delivery mechanisms are established, the goal of integrating siRNA therapy into the treatment of a multitude of diseases becomes increasingly more of a possibility. Researchers are currently investigating how siRNA can be used to not just treat cancer but ocular and neurodegenerative diseases as well as many others. There are still many obstacles to face and overcome before siRNA therapy can be implemented into the treatment of many diseases, and more research must still be conducted concerning siRNA delivery systems. Many advancements pertaining to siRNA carriers have been made, and many more are likely on their way.