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This study examined the discriminant and criterion-related validity of achievement goals in predicting academic achievement. Analysis of 151 studies yielded 172 independent samples (N = 52,986) with correlations among achievement goals and between achievement goals and academic achievement. The discriminant validity of achievement goals in the 2-, 3-, and 4-factor achievement models was sound, as the correlations among achievement goals ranged from .00 to .38. Approach motivations were associated with higher academic achievement, and avoidance motivations were associated with lower academic achievement. The criterion-related validity of each achievement goal (r = -.13 to .13) and the validities for the 2-, 3-, and 4-factor models were low. Integrating the findings regarding the discriminant and criterion-related validity revealed the 4-factor model as the best choice to facilitate the understanding of learning outcomes.

This meta-analysis examines the relationship between time spent on social networking sites and psychological well-being factors, namely self-esteem, life satisfaction, loneliness, and depression. Sixty-one studies consisting of 67 independent samples involving 19,652 participants were identified. The mean correlation between time spent on social networking sites and psychological well-being was low at r = -0.07. The correlations between time spent on social networking sites and positive indicators (self-esteem and life satisfaction) were close to 0, whereas those between time spent on social networking sites and negative indicators (depression and loneliness) were weak. The effects of publication outlet, site on which users spent time, scale of time spent, and participant age and gender were not significant. As most included studies used student samples, future research should be conducted to examine this relationship for adults.

This meta-analysis synthesized 93 independent samples (N=30,003) in 77 studies that reported in 78 articles examining correlations between achievement goals and achievement emotions. Achievement goals were meaningfully associated with different achievement emotions. The correlations of mastery and mastery approach goals with positive achievement emotions and those between performance avoidance goals and negative achievement emotions were large based on Cohen's guidelines. The correlations of performance approach goals with positive and negative achievement emotions were comparable. The variation in the correlations between achievement goals and achievement emotions can be explained by achievement emotion indicators. The correlations of mastery goals with enjoyment and interest were larger than those with anxiety. Achievement goals, which are "competence-relevant aims that individuals strive for in achievement settings" (Pekrun et al. 2009, p. 115), represent an intensively researched topic in the field of achievement motivation. Early achievement goal theorists categorized goals in terms of how competence was defined. The mastery, learning, task, or task-involvement goal was characterized by the development of a skill or mastery of a task (Ames 1992;Dweck and Leggett 1988;Nicholls 1984), where the performance, relative ability, or egoinvolvement goal focused on ability or outperforming others. Elliot (1994) revised this dichotomous framework into a trichotomous framework in which mastery goals stress the achieving competence based on an absolute or intrapersonal standard, rather than a normative standard, performance approach goals that emphasize demonstrating competence relative to others, and performance avoidance goals that are focused on avoiding the demonstration of incompetence relative to others. Elliot and McGregor (2001) further split mastery goals into a 2×2 framework. Mastery approach goals emphasize individual