With the present study, I explore the function, meaning, and empowerment potential of masturbation for 765 American women. The sample was somewhat diverse, but primarily young (79% under 30), White (75%), educated (85% with at least a bachelor’s degree), and heterosexual (67%). Participants completed an online anonymous survey that included endorsement of various attitudes toward masturbation, reasons for masturbating, and emotions following masturbation. Two split-half exploratory factor analyses (followed by confirmatory factor analyses) indicated that women’s reasons for masturbating clustered into five main reasons: (a) sexual pleasure, (b) to learn about or better understand their bodies, (c) as a release, (d) to substitute for partner sex, and (e) general sexual dissatisfaction. Women’s feelings regarding their masturbation fell into three clusters: (a) shame, (b) sexual empowerment, and (c) fear that one is acting selfishly. Most women in my study did not feel ashamed about masturbating; instead, many women felt sexually empowered. A hierarchical multiple regression demonstrated that women were more likely to feel sexually empowered by the fact that they masturbate if they reported being more sexually efficacious, having higher genital self-image, and masturbating for sexual pleasure or to learn more about their bodies. Results lend support to the feminist theory that when women are able to focus on their own sexual pleasure or learning, without the concerns of pregnancy or pleasing a partner, they may feel sexually empowered.

The authors acknowledge the contributions of Gary Dowsett and Duane Duncan to the initial formulations of the chapter, and Jennifer Chmielewski for assistance with references and manuscript preparation.

In this mixed-methods study, we adopted a feminist theoretical lens in conceptualizing gender as hierarchical and complementary ideologies—femininity and masculinity—that are fundamental constituents of institutionalized heterosexuality as a way to understand the persistence of gender inequity in adolescents’ heterosexual relationships. In Study 1, we conducted separate analyses for girls and boys to evaluate whether masculinity ideology for boys and femininity ideology for girls account for boys’ endorsement of male coercion and for girls’ endorsement of feminine conventions in heterosexual relationships with a sample of 250 tenth-grade students (n = 144 girls). Masculinity ideology proved to be as strong or stronger than femininity ideology in predicting these respective outcomes. In Study 2, we sought to understand this pattern through a thematically informed narrative analysis of interviews with 53 of the Study 1 participants (n = 35 girls) on their beliefs about and experiences with sexual expression and heterosexual relationships. Girls described the dual task of managing boys’ masculinity as well as their own femininity. Boys, by contrast, described girls’ femininity in instrumental terms for the management of their own masculinity. Integration of these results provides greater insight into how institutionalized heterosexuality is reproduced through the functioning of these hierarchical complementary gender ideologies.

Sexual agency is a fundamental dimension of sexual subjectivity and well-being. Research and theory suggest that it functions in the service of both protection from harm and enabling sexual pleasure. However, sexual agency can be difficult for women to navigate in a social landscape in which femininity ideologies remain powerful social forces, operating in racialized ways. We examined how embodiment, sexual desire, and entitlement to sexual pleasure were associated with sexual agency in the service of protection (i.e., condom use and refusing unwanted sex) and pleasure (i.e., asking for what one wants from a sexual partner) for Black and White heterosexual college women using path analysis and path invariance testing. We found that across race, women’s embodiment was associated with greater comfort with their sexual desire, which in turn was associated with greater entitlement to sexual pleasure and sexual agency in service of both pleasure and protection. While Black and White women evidenced similar levels of both forms of agency, Black participants’ agency in the service of protection was unrelated to their entitlement to sexual pleasure. We discuss these findings in light of racialized discourses of women’s sexuality and the importance of understanding sexual desire as anchored in the body and enabling young women’s sexual agency.