Background Chloride intracellular channel 4 (CLIC4) is highly expressed in the endothelium of remodelled pulmonary vessels and plexiform lesions of patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). CLIC4 regulates vasculogenesis through endothelial tube formation. Aberrant CLIC4 expression may contribute to the vascular pathology of PAH. Methods and Results CLIC4 protein expression was increased in plasma and blood-derived endothelial cells from patients with idiopathic PAH (IPAH) and in the pulmonary vascular endothelium of 3 rat models of pulmonary hypertension. CLIC4 gene deletion markedly attenuated the development of chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension in mice. Adenoviral overexpression of CLIC4 in cultured human pulmonary artery endothelial cells compromised pulmonary endothelial barrier function and enhanced their survival and angiogenic capacity, while CLIC4 shRNA had an inhibitory effect. Similarly, inhibition of CLIC4 expression in blood-derived endothelial cells from patients with IPAH attenuated the abnormal angiogenic behaviour that characterises these cells. The mechanism of CLIC4 effects involves p65-mediated activation of nuclear factor-κB, followed by stabilisation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and increased downstream production of vascular endothelial growth factor and endothelin-1. Conclusions Increased CLIC4 expression is an early manifestation and mediator of endothelial dysfunction in pulmonary hypertension.

Cell-free hemoglobin (Hb) exposure may be a pathogenic mediator in the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), and when combined with chronic hypoxia the potential for exacerbation of PAH and vascular remodeling is likely more pronounced. We hypothesized that Hb may contribute to hypoxia-driven PAH collectively as a prooxidant, inflammatory, and nitric oxide (NO) scavenger. Using programmable micropump technology, we exposed male Sprague-Dawley rats housed under room air or hypoxia to 12 or 30 mg per day Hb for 3, 5, and 7 wk. Blood pressure, cardiac output, right ventricular hypertrophy, and indexes of pulmonary vascular remodeling were evaluated. Additionally, markers of oxidative stress, NO bioavailability and inflammation were determined. Hb increased pulmonary arterial (PA) pressure, pulmonary vessel wall stiffening, and right heart hypertrophy with temporal and dose dependence in both room air and hypoxic cohorts. Hb induced a modest increase in plasma oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxynonenal), no change in NO bioavailability, and increased lung ICAM protein expression. Treatment with the antioxidant Tempol attenuated Hb-induced pulmonary arterial wall thickening, but not PA pressures or ICAM expression. Chronic exposure to low plasma Hb concentrations (range = 3–10 μM) lasting up to 7 wk in rodents induces pulmonary vascular disease via inflammation and to a lesser extent by Hb-mediated oxidation. Tempol demonstrated a modest effect on the attenuation of Hb-induced pulmonary vascular disease. NO bioavailability was found to be of minimal importance in this model.