Body image disturbance is a core symptom of eating disorders (EDs) and body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). There is first evidence that females’ body image differs depending on sexual orientation, with heterosexual women (HEW) appearing to show more body image disturbance symptoms than homosexual women (HOW). Such disparities might be moderated by everyday discrimination experiences and involvement with the lesbian community. However, to date, there has been no comprehensive assessment of a broad range of body image facets such as drive for thinness, leanness, and muscularity; body avoidance; body checking and body dissatisfaction; and ED and BDD pathology as well as moderating factors. Moreover, studies have often neglected bisexual women (BIW). A total of N = 617 women ( n = 180 HOW, n = 322 HEW, n = 115 BIW) completed an online survey assessing the various facets of body image, ED and BDD pathology, discrimination experiences, and involvement with the lesbian community. Significant group differences were found regarding drive for leanness and thinness, body checking, investment behavior, and body ideal (all p<.05). BIW showed significantly more body checking than HOW. Compared to HEW, HOW reported a significantly lower drive for leanness and thinness as well as compared to HEW and BIW less investment behavior. HOW preferred a body ideal with significantly more body fat than did HEW (all p<.05). In contrast, no differences emerged in body dissatisfaction, drive for muscularity, body-related avoidance, ED and BDD pathology, and body image disturbance (all p>.05). In all groups, discrimination experiences were positively related to ED and BDD pathology and to body image disturbance (all p < .05); however, discrimination was significantly correlated with more body image facets in HEW than in HOW or BIW. Involvement with the lesbian community was positively correlated with a larger ideal body size in HOW ( p < .05) and negatively correlated with drive for muscularity in BIW ( p < .05). Despite the group differences in several body image facets, we found no consistent evidence of increased vulnerability to body image disturbance or associated pathology depending on sexual orientation. However, in HEW, discrimination experience might pose a risk factor for the development of body image–related pathology and single facets of body image disturbance.

Objective: The study aimed to validate the Body Image Matrix of Thinness and Muscularity-Male Bodies (BIMTM-MB), a two-dimensional figure rating scale consisting of 64 three-dimensional male bodies, arranged in an 8 × 8 grid, with muscularity increasing stepwise on the vertical axis and body fat on the horizontal axis. Method: The online sample included 355 men participating in an online survey. Besides the BIMTM-MB, participants completed questionnaires on body-related attitudes, behaviors, and psychopathology. Another 91 men were recruited to examine test-retest reliability of the BIMTM-MB. Results: The BIMTM-MB showed good convergent and criterion validity. Men meeting their own body ideal showed higher body satisfaction and lower body-related psychopathology. Test-retest reliability was high. Conclusions: The BIMTM-MB proved to be a reliable and valid measure and is recommended for use in research and clinical practice to examine central aspects of male body image. K E Y W O R D S body fat, body image, figure rating scale, men, muscularity

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Objective This study contributes to the quantitatively large, yet narrow in scope research on body image in gay men by assessing whether gay and heterosexual men systematically differ on various dimensions of body image disturbance and associated pathology, i.e., eating disorder and body dysmorphic disorder symptoms. Moreover, we examined the influence of general everyday discrimination experiences and involvement with the gay community on body image. Method N = 216 men (n = 112 gay men, n = 104 heterosexual men) participated in an online survey measuring the discrepancy between self-rated current and ideal body fat/ muscularity; drive for leanness, muscularity, and thinness; body satisfaction; body-related avoidance and checking; appearance fixing; overall body image disturbance; eating disorder and body dysmorphic disorder pathology; general everyday discrimination experiences; and involvement with the gay community. Results Gay men showed a greater discrepancy between self-rated current and ideal body fat; higher drive for thinness, body-related avoidance, appearance fixing, overall body image disturbance, eating disorder and body dysmorphic disorder pathology; and lower body appreciation than heterosexual men (all p ≤ .05). Contrary to expectation, everyday discrimination experiences were more strongly associated with body image disturbance and eating disorder/ body dysmorphic disorder pathology in heterosexual men than in gay men (all p ≤ .05). Gay community involvement was not associated with any body image disturbance-, ED-, or BDD aspect in gay men (all p ≥ .20). Discussion The results suggest greater body image disturbance in gay men than in heterosexual men regarding cognitions, emotions, behaviors, and perception as well as higher eating disorder and body dysmorphic disorder pathology. The results also suggest the dilemma of a thin, yet muscular body ideal in gay men. Surprisingly, discrimination experiences and involvement with the gay community did not explain differences in body image disturbance. Gay men may have become resilient to discrimination over time, and body ideals might differ across gay sub-communities.

Zusammenfassung. Dieses Review stellt bisherige Kernbefunde und Trends hinsichtlich Unterschieden zwischen homosexuellen (HoM) und heterosexuellen Männern (HeM) im Körperbild entlang dessen drei Komponenten perzeptiv, kognitiv-affektiv und behavioral zusammenfassend dar. Außerdem wird ein vergleichender Überblick über die Auftretenshäufigkeit sowie Symptomatik von Essstörungen (ES) und der Körperdysmorphen Störung (KDS) gegeben. HoM weisen im Vergleich zu HeM kein insgesamt negativeres Körperbild, sondern negativere Ausprägungen auf einzelnen Facetten auf. Die Männer scheinen sich nicht in der Wahrnehmung des eigenen Körpers und der Diskrepanz zwischen tatsächlichem und idealem Körper zu unterscheiden. Bezüglich der Präferenz eines schlanken Körperideals liegen Inkonsistenzen vor. HoM zeigen im Selbstbericht eine höhere Ausprägung in Körperunzufriedenheit und Schlankheitsstreben als HeM. Hinsichtlich der Häufigkeit von Sportverhalten liegt ein inkonsistentes Bild vor, HoM berichten jedoch tendenziell ein stärkeres Vermeidungs- und Kontrollverhalten. Im Muskulositätsstreben scheinen sich die Männer nicht zu unterscheiden. Es kann nicht eindeutig davon ausgegangen werden, dass sich HoM und HeM in der Häufigkeit von ES voneinander unterscheiden, jedoch scheinen keine Häufigkeitsunterschiede bezüglich KDS zu bestehen. Demgegenüber liegt bei HoM tendenziell eine schwerere ES- und KDS-Symptomatik vor. Für eine umfassendere Sichtweise auf das Körperbild von und die Psychopathologie von ES und KDS bei HoM und HeM sowie individuellere Gestaltung von Interventionen, ist weitere Forschung notwendig. Diese sollte insbesondere wenig untersuchte Konstrukte wie Definiertheitsstreben, kognitive Verzerrungen, Investmentverhalten und Essanfälle sowie potenzielle mediierende Faktoren wie bspw. die Zugehörigkeit zur schwulen Community (inklusive Subgruppen) einschließen.