We confirmed that adipose tissue inflammation and fibrosis play an important role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance independent of obesity in humans. Whether hypoxia is simply a consequence of adipose tissue expansion or is related to the pathogenesis of obesity-induced insulin resistance is yet to be understood.

There was not an apparent decline in GDR with age or time since menopause per se. However, E2 action on GDR was dependent on time since menopause, such that there was an apparent benefit early (≤ 6 years) compared to harm later (≥ 10 years) in menopause. E2-mediated effects on insulin action may be one mechanism by which HT reduces the incidence of T2D in early postmenopausal women.

The physis, or growth plate, is a cartilaginous region at the end of children's long bones that serves as the primary center for longitudinal growth and characterizes the immature skeleton. Musculoskeletal injury, including fracture, infection, malignancy, or iatrogenic damage, has risk of physeal damage. Physeal injuries account for 30% of pediatric fractures and may result in impaired bone growth. Once damaged, cartilage tissue within the physis is often replaced by unwanted bony tissue, forming a "bony bar" that can lead to complications such as complete growth arrest, angular or rotational deformities, and altered joint mechanics. Children with a bony bar occupying <50% of the physis usually undergo bony bar resection and insertion of an interpositional material, such as a fat graft, to prevent recurrence and allow the surrounding uninjured physeal tissue to restore longitudinal bone growth. Clinical success for this procedure is <35% and often the bony bar and associated growth impairments return. Children who are not candidates for bony bar resection due to a physeal bar occupying >50% of their physis undergo corrective osteotomy or bone lengthening procedures. These approaches are complex and have variable success rates. As such, there is a critical need for regenerative approaches to not only prevent initial bony bar formation but also regenerate healthy physeal cartilage following injury. This review describes physeal anatomy, mechanisms of physeal injury, and current treatment options with associated limitations. Furthermore, we provide an overview of the current research using cell-based therapies, growth factors, and biomaterials in the different animal models of injury along with strategic directions for modulating intrinsic injury pathways to inhibit bony bar formation and/or promote physeal tissue formation. Pediatric physeal injuries constitute a unique niche within regenerative medicine for which there is a critical need for research to decrease child morbidity related to this injurious process.

Adiponectin levels are positively correlated with insulin sensitivity in T1D patients. However, T1D patients have decreased insulin sensitivity compared with controls at every level of adiponectin, suggesting an important adaptive change of adiponectin set point.

Objective Postprandial lipemia worsens after menopause, but the mechanism remains unknown. We hypothesized menopause-related postprandial lipemia would be: 1) associated with reduced storage of dietary fatty acids (FA) as triglyceride (TG) in subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT); and 2) improved by short-term estradiol (E2). Design and Methods We studied 23 pre- (mean±SD; 42±4yr) and 22 postmenopausal (55±4yr) women with similar total adiposity. A subset of postmenopausal women (n=12) were studied following 2 weeks of E2 (0.15mg) and matching placebo in a random, cross-over design. A liquid meal containing 14C-oleic acid traced appearance of dietary FA in: serum (postprandial TG), breath (oxidation), and abdominal and femoral SAT (TG storage). Results Compared to premenopausal, healthy lean postmenopausal women had increased postprandial glucose and insulin and trend for higher TG, but similar dietary FA oxidation and storage. Adipocytes were larger in post- compared to premenopausal women, particularly in femoral SAT. Short-term E2 reduced postprandial TG and insulin, but had no effect on oxidation or storage of dietary FA. E2 increased the proportion of small adipocytes in femoral (but not abdominal) SAT. Conclusions Short-term E2 attenuated menopause-related increases in postprandial TG and increased femoral adipocyte hyperplasia, but not through increased net storage of dietary FA.