Epithelial and endothelial tight junctions act as a rate-limiting barrier between an organism and its environment. Continuing studies have highlighted the regulation of the tight junction barrier by cytokines. Elucidation of this interplay is vital for both the understanding of physiological tight junction regulation and the etiology of pathological conditions. This review will focus on recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of tight junctions modulation by cytokines.

SUMMARY Inflammatory cytokines have been proposed to regulate epithelial homeostasis during intestinal inflammation. We report here that interferon-γ (IFN-γ) regulates the crucial homeostatic functions of cell proliferation and apoptosis through serine-threonine protein kinase AKT-β-catenin and Wingless-Int (Wnt)-β-catenin signaling pathways. Short-term exposure of intestinal epithelial cells to IFN-γ resulted in activation of β-catenin through AKT, followed by induction of the secreted Wnt inhibitor Dkk1. Consequently, we observed an increase in Dkk1-mediated apoptosis upon extended IFN-γ treatment, and reduced proliferation through depletion of the Wnt co-receptor LRP6. These effects were enhanced by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF)-α, suggesting synergism between the two cytokines. Consistent with these results, colitis in vivo was associated with decreased β-catenin-T-cell factor (TCF) signaling, loss of plasma membrane-associated LRP6, and reduced epithelial cell proliferation. Proliferation was partially restored in IFN-γ - deficient mice. Thus, we propose that IFN-γ regulates intestinal epithelial homeostasis by sequential regulation of converging β-catenin signaling pathways.

Scribble (Scrib) is a conserved polarity protein required in Drosophila melanogaster for synaptic function, neuroblast differentiation, and epithelial polarization. It is also a tumor suppressor. In rodents, Scrib has been implicated in receptor recycling and planar polarity but not in apical/basal polarity. We now show that knockdown of Scrib disrupts adhesion between Madin–Darby canine kidney epithelial cells. As a consequence, the cells acquire a mesenchymal appearance, migrate more rapidly, and lose directionality. Although tight junction assembly is delayed, confluent monolayers remain polarized. These effects are independent of Rac activation or Scrib binding to βPIX. Rather, Scrib depletion disrupts E-cadherin–mediated cell–cell adhesion. The changes in morphology and migration are phenocopied by E-cadherin knockdown. Adhesion is partially rescued by expression of an E-cadherin–α-catenin fusion protein but not by E-cadherin–green fluorescent protein. These results suggest that Scrib stabilizes the coupling between E-cadherin and the catenins and are consistent with the idea that mammalian Scrib could behave as a tumor suppressor by regulating epithelial cell adhesion and migration.

Recent evidence has linked intestinal permeability to mucosal inflammation, but molecular studies are lacking. Candidate regulatory molecules localized within the tight junction (TJ) include Junctional Adhesion Molecule (JAM-A), which has been implicated in the regulation of barrier function and leukocyte migration. Thus, we analyzed the intestinal mucosa of JAM-A–deficient (JAM-A−/−) mice for evidence of enhanced permeability and inflammation. Colonic mucosa from JAM-A−/− mice had normal epithelial architecture but increased polymorphonuclear leukocyte infiltration and large lymphoid aggregates not seen in wild-type controls. Barrier function experiments revealed increased mucosal permeability, as indicated by enhanced dextran flux, and decreased transepithelial electrical resistance in JAM-A−/− mice. The in vivo observations were epithelial specific, because monolayers of JAM-A−/− epithelial cells also demonstrated increased permeability. Analyses of other TJ components revealed increased expression of claudin-10 and -15 in the colonic mucosa of JAM-A−/− mice and in JAM-A small interfering RNA–treated epithelial cells. Given the observed increase in colonic inflammation and permeability, we assessed the susceptibility of JAM-A−/− mice to the induction of colitis with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Although DSS-treated JAM-A−/− animals had increased clinical disease compared with controls, colonic mucosa showed less injury and increased epithelial proliferation. These findings demonstrate a complex role of JAM-A in intestinal homeostasis by regulating epithelial permeability, inflammation, and proliferation.

E-cadherin forms calcium-dependent homophilic intercellular adhesions between epithelial cells. These contacts regulate multiple aspects of cell behavior, including the organization of intercellular tight junctions (TJs). To distinguish between the roles of E-cadherin in formation versus maintenance of junctions, Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were depleted of E-cadherin by RNA interference. Surprisingly, reducing E-cadherin expression had little effect on the protein levels or localization of adherens junction (AJ) or TJ markers. The cells underwent morphological changes, as the normally flat apical surface swelled into a dome. However, apical-basal polarity was not compromised, transmembrane resistance was normal, and zonula occludin protein 1 dynamics at the TJs were unchanged. Additionally, an E-cadherin/ Cadherin-6 double knockdown also failed to disrupt established TJs, although ␤-catenin was lost from the cell cortex. Nevertheless, cells depleted of E-cadherin failed to properly reestablish cell polarity after junction disassembly. Recovery of cell-cell adhesion, transepithelial resistance, and the localization of TJ and AJ markers were all delayed. In contrast, depletion of ␣-catenin caused long-term disruption of junctions. These results indicate that E-cadherin and Cadherin-6 function as a scaffold for the construction of polarized structures, and they become largely dispensable in mature junctions, whereas ␣-catenin is essential for the maintenance of functional junctions. INTRODUCTIONThe cadherins are a large family of transmembrane glycoproteins that form homophilic, calcium-dependent interactions with neighboring cells (Takeichi, 1988;Gumbiner, 2000;Nollet et al., 2000). Cadherin family members include type I cadherins (E-, N-, P-, and R-cadherin), type II cadherins (Cadherin-6 and VE-cadherin), desmosomal cadherins (desmocollins and desmogleins), and a large subfamily of cadherin-like molecules (Nollet et al., 2000). The predominant epithelial isoform, E-cadherin, localizes to the lateral membrane of differentiated epithelia, providing the structural foundation for adherens junctions (AJs), a multiprotein complex that links cell-cell contacts to the actin cytoskeleton and various signaling molecules (PerezMoreno et al., 2003). The extracellular domain is composed of five ectodomain modules (ECs), with the most membranedistal module (EC1) mediating binding with the E-cadherin on the adjacent cell (Boggon et al., 2002). Calcium ions bind between the EC domains to promote a rod-like conformation required for transinteractions (Gumbiner, 1996;Patel et al., 2006). The cytoplasmic tail of E-cadherin binds to the armadillo repeat protein ␤-catenin, an important target of the Wnt signaling pathway and a cofactor for TCF/LEF-mediated transcription (Gavard and Mege, 2005). The ␤-catenin in turn binds ␣-catenin, which interacts with actin, as well as several actin-binding proteins: vinculin, formins, ␣-actinin, zonula occludin protein (ZO)-1, and afadin (Bershadsky, 2004). Cell-cell adhesions also co...