Variability in food composition has a large impact on assessments of iodine intake, particularly among young children for whom milk contributes a large proportion of their daily nutrient intake. Although this is unlikely to result in long-term adverse effects, our study highlights the need for development of valid biomarkers of individual iodine status.

Background: Dietary fat is an essential macronutrient. However, saturated fact has been associated with negative health outcomes including cardiovascular disease. Shifting consumption from saturated fat to unsaturated fats and limiting the level of saturated fat in the diet has been recommended. Currently, there is no standard method to measure saturated fat intake in etiologic studies. Therefore, it is difficult to obtain a reliable picture of saturated fat intake in Europe. To inform the development of the DEDIPAC (DEterminants of DIet and Physical Activity) toolbox of methods, we aimed to identify the assessment methods and specific instruments which have been used to assess saturated fat intake among children or adults in pan-European studies. Methods: Three electronic databases were searched for English language studies of any design which assessed intake of saturated fat. Reference lists were hand-searched. Studies were included if they were conducted in two or more European countries, and involved healthy, free-living children and adults. Results: The review identified 20 pan-European studies which assessed saturated fat intake. Food Frequency Questionnaires (n = 8) and diet records (n = 7) were most common, followed by 24-h recalls (n = 5). Methods differed in portion size estimation and the composition data which was used to calculate nutrient intake. Of the instruments used in more than two European countries, five Food Frequency Questionnaires had been specifically tested for validity to assess saturated fat intake; four among adults (Food4me, PURE, IMMIDIET, Health, Alcohol and Psychosocial factors in Eastern Europe (HAPIEE)) and one among children (used by Piqueras et al.). Conclusions: A standardised approach to portion size estimation and a common source of food composition data are required to measure saturated fat intake across Europe effectively. Only five instruments had been used in more than two European countries and specifically tested for validity to assess saturated fat intake. These instruments may be most appropriate to evaluate intake of saturated fat in future pan-European studies. However, only two instruments had been tested for validity in more than one European country. Future work is needed to assess the validity of the identified instruments across European countries.

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Iodine, an essential component of thyroid hormone, plays an important role in neurodevelopment. The reliability of an estimate of iodine intake is largely dependent on quality of the food composition data in terms of completeness, currency and the extent to which natural variability in iodine content is taken into account. Milk is a significant source of iodine and the iodine content of milk is highly variable due to the use of animal feeds during the winter period and iodine-containing teat disinfectants pre-and post-milking (1) . The aim of this study was to assess the impact of using 2 different sources of iodine composition data on the estimates of iodine intake, adequacy and potential for excessive intakes in 2 year old children participating in the Cork BASELINE Birth Cohort Study. A total of 468 2-day weighed food records were collected and dietary intake data were extracted and analysed using (i) UK food composition data (2) and (ii) analytical values for Irish foods obtained from the Food Safety Authority of Ireland (FSAI) Total Diet Study (2012)(2013)(2014) (3) . A total of 690 food items (including composite dishes) were adjusted using the FSAI analytical iodine composition values (n 141), representing 56 % of all food items consumed. Mean daily iodine intakes were calculated using both UK and FSAI analytical data and values were compared with selected dietary reference values (DRVs) (4,5) . We found that daily iodine intake in Irish 2 year olds was adequate. Daily estimates of iodine intake derived using UK and Irish composition values were significantly different (P < 0·001), with a mean (SD) difference of 30 (34) μg/d, representing 75 % of the UK LRNI, and 43 % of the UK RNI. The key dietary sources of iodine were milk (UK: 58 %, FSAI: 69 %), yoghurt (UK: 9 %, FSAI: 6 %), formula (UK: 6 %; FSAI: 5 %) and fish (UK: 5 %, FSAI: 3 %). Though small but significant differences in the estimates of iodine intake below selected DRVs were observed, the estimates of intakes exceeding the tolerable upper intake level (UL) were substantially different (UK: 22 %, FSAI: 35 %). UK and FSAI P95 intakes were 138 % and 173 % of the UL, respectively, of which milk intake accounted for 106 % and 150 % of UL.The variability in the iodine content of dairy foods in particular results in the greatest disparity between estimates of intake, particularly at the higher end of the intake distribution. Accurate and up-to-date composition data, which account for seasonal variation and agricultural practices, are essential for reliable estimation of iodine intake. Though the risk of adverse effects is low (5,6) , the findings of this study indicate that careful consideration of high iodine intakes in young children as a consequence of high milk consumption is required.

Vitamin K 1 has a key role in blood coagulation, bone metabolism and the regulation of calcification (1) . There are currently insufficient data available to set an average requirement for vitamin K 1 for children however the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has recently proposed an Adequate Intake (AI) of 1·0 µg/kg bodyweight per day based on observed intakes (1) . Few data are available on vitamin K 1 intakes in young children. The objective of this analysis was to estimate the intake and sources of vitamin K 1 in Irish pre-school children aged 1-4 years (n = 500) using data from the Irish National Pre-School Nutrition Survey (2010-2011) (www.iuna.net). Dietary intake data were collected using a 4d weighed food record and the vitamin K 1 content of foods was primarily determined using data from the UK food composition tables (COFID) (2) . For certain foods where vitamin K 1 values were not available in COFID, the US (3) and Danish food composition tables (4) and published papers were used to assign suitable vitamin K 1 values. The vitamin K 1 content of composite dishes and retail products were calculated based on their ingredients. Usual intakes of vitamin K 1 were calculated via the NCI-method (5) using SAS Enterprise Guide. Body weight (kg) was measured in the participants' homes by trained researchers. Differences in vitamin K 1 intakes were assessed using a Kruskal-Wallis test (for non-normal data) and a Wilcoxon two sample test was used for post-hoc analysis. The mean daily intakes of vitamin K 1 were 33, 30, 28 and 32 µg for 1, 2, 3 and 4 year olds, respectively. Adjusted for bodyweight, intakes (μg/kg/d) were 2·9, 2·1, 1·8 and 1·8 respectively showing a decrease (p < 0·001) with increasing age from age 1y to 3-4y respectively. Approximately 82 % of children had intakes above the AI of 1·0 µg/kg bodyweight per day. The table below reports the contribution (%) of food groups to vitamin K 1 intake in Irish children aged 1-4 years, by age.The main source of vitamin K 1 for all ages was 'vegetable and vegetable dishes' (24-32 %, range across age), of which 13-20 % came from green vegetables. Other important sources were fruit & fruit juices (15-17 %), meat (10-11 %) and milk (6-25 %). The contribution from milk decreased significantly (p < 0·001) with increasing age from age 1y to age 3-4y primarily due to consumption of fortified infant and child formula in the earlier years (6)