Macrophages (Mϕ) and dendritic cells (DCs) are heterogeneous families of functionally and developmentally related immune cells that play crucial roles in tissue homeostasis and regulation of immune responses. In the past 5 years, immunologists have generated a considerable amount of data that challenged dogmas about the ontogeny and functions of these highly versatile cells. The male excurrent duct system plays a critical role in the establishment of fertility by allowing sperm maturation, transport and storage. In addition, it is challenged by pathogens and must establish a protective and tolerogenic environment for a continuous flow of autoantigenic spermatozoa. The post-testicular environment, and particularly the epididymis, contains an intricate network of DCs and Mϕ; however, the immunophysiology of this intriguing and highly specialized mucosal system is poorly understood. This review summarizes the current trends in mouse Mϕ and DC biology and speculates about their roles in the steady state epididymis. Unraveling immune cell functions in the male reproductive tract is an essential prerequisite for the design of innovative strategies aiming at controlling male fertility and treating infertility.

Acidosis is an important complication of AKI and CKD. Renal intercalated cells (ICs) express the proton pumping vacuolar H-ATPase (V-ATPase) and are extensively involved in acid-base homeostasis. H secretion in type A intercalated cells (A-ICs) is regulated by apical vesicle recycling and stimulated by cAMP. In other cell types, cAMP is increased by extracellular agonists, including adenosine, through purinergic receptors. Adenosine is a Food and Drug Administration-approved drug, but very little is known about the effect of adenosine on IC function. Therefore, we investigated the role of adenosine in the regulation of V-ATPase in ICs. Intravenous treatment of mice with adenosine or agonists of ADORA2A and ADORA2B purinergic P1 receptors induced V-ATPase apical membrane accumulation in medullary A-ICs but not in cortical A-ICs or other IC subtypes. Both receptors are located in A-IC apical membranes, and adenosine injection increased urine adenosine concentration and decreased urine pH. Cell fractionation showed that adenosine or an ADORA2A or ADORA2B agonist induced V-ATPase translocation from vesicles to the plasma membrane and increased protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent protein phosphorylation in purified medullary ICs that were isolated from mice. Either ADORA2A or ADORA2B antagonists or the PKA inhibitor mPKI blocked these effects. Finally, a fluorescence pH assay showed that adenosine activates V-ATPase in isolated medullary ICs. Our study shows that medullary A-ICs respond to luminal adenosine through ADORA2A and ADORA2B receptors in a cAMP/PKA pathway-dependent mechanism to induce V-ATPase-dependent H secretion.