We explore gender differences in the importance of reflected appraisals, self-perceived competence, and social comparisons as sources of self-esteem. Gender differences are expected for several reasons: sex role socialization may lead men and women to develop abilities to exploit different sources of self-esteem; men and women may learn to embrace different criteria for self-evaluation; and opportunities to experience self-enhancement in various ways may be distributed unequally between men and women. We find that women attach greater importance to reflected appraisals than do men, and that men attach greater importance to social comparisons than do women. No difference is found for self-perceived competence. Men and women are also much alike, we find, in that reflected appraisals are the most important source of self-esteem for both groups, followed by self-perceived competence and then by social comparisons. These finding are interpreted in terms of compensation/availability dynamic that is hypothesized to underlie self-esteem formation. Some implications of this analysis for modifying identity theory are discussed.

Transnational corporations (TNCs) are driving globalisation, but is there any evidence that the boards who govern these corporations are becoming more global? The question is intriguing to those who study corporate governance and those interested in the sociology of global capitalism, but up to now evidence on the extent of TNC board globalisation is largely anecdotal or weak. To address this issue I conducted a follow-up to Gillies' and Dickinson's (1999 Corporate Governance: An International Journal , 7, 237-247) study of 80 of the world's largest TNCs. These authors reported that in 1993 36.3 per cent of these companies had at least one non-national board member. In late 2005 I found, in contrast, that 75 per cent of these companies had at least one non-national board member. However, the evidence also shows that while this trend has certainly become more widespread, it is not yet very deep; on average, only 25 per cent of these boards consisted of non-nationals, while non-nationals made up a majority of the board in only 10 per cent of these cases. Nevertheless, this trend toward more multinational boards is worth monitoring because such boards provide a transnational social infrastructure which may facilitate the emergence of a global business class.

Theorists of globalization have hypothesized the emergence of a transnational capitalist class that is becoming increasingly integrated across national borders. One method of evaluating this hypothesis has been to apply network analysis to study the frequency and pattern of transnational ties within global interlocking directorates. The results of such studies are mixed, both as regards the extent of transnational interlocking and its regional distribution. In an effort to resolve this ambiguity and advance the state of research in this area we undertake two main tasks. First, we submit the prevailing methodology used in such studies to a critical evaluation in which we identify and address some of its theoretical and methodological limitations. Second, we introduce and illustrate three alternative methods for assessing the extent and pattern of global interlocking directorates. Each method conceptualizes transnational interlocking in a slightly different manner and brings different aspects of the process into focus. Despite these differences, all four methods point to the conclusion that a transnational capitalist class is very far from being realized on a global scale. On the other hand, the combined evidence is much stronger and relatively consistent for the emergence of a more circumscribed transnational capitalist class, centered in the North Atlantic region, which has made significant strides in transcending national divisions within and between Europe and North America.

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This study examines the relationship between social stratification and self-esteem by focusing on aspects of stratification and self-esteem formation processes ignored in previous research. An analysis of theoretical developments and empirical research reveals that the exclusive focus on occupational status and self-esteem derived from interpersonal comparison processes ignores an entire dimension of the relationship between social stratification and self-esteem—that between social class (in the Marxian sense) and self-esteem derived from the experience of self-efficacy. We provide evidence here that supports a hypothesized relationship between social class and occupational conditions that constrain or enable the experience of self-efficacy and self-esteem. Our findings suggest that carefully distinguishing between class and status, and recognizing the multiple processes of self-esteem formation, can improve our explanation of variation in self-esteem with reference to social stratification.