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There is a general consensus that functional traits are reliable indicators of adaptation of organisms to particular environmental characteristics. In this study we relate the combined distributions of species traits of plants and animals to disturbance regimes in chestnut forests of southern Switzerland affected by regular winter fires. We used co-inertia analysis for combining the trait response of 471 invertebrate species (117 001 individuals) and 81 plant species at 23 sites with different fire and cutting histories. Trait response was assessed by calculating the variation in weighted mean traits averaged over the communities and by using mean traits in multivariate analyses. The analysis showed a strong association between plant and animal traits under fire constraints (Monte-Carlo test, p 00.0045). Plants and animal distributions show parallel trends in responses to fire which selects traits relating to persistence (ability to survive), resilience (ability to recover) and mobility. Warmth-demanding insects, herbivores, flying carnivores and pollinators were associated with recent fires, as were annual, ruderal and light-demanding plant species with long flowering duration. Small arthropods feeding on dead wood and those with narrow habitat requirements were associated with low fire frequency and unburnt sites, as were competitive plants with large seeds favoring moist sites. The spatial association between plant and animal traits reflected adaptations that promote survival in the disturbance regime, while the disturbance acts as an environmental filter on the distribution and assemblage of the trait values within communities.This combined analysis of plant and invertebrate traits distributions illustrates how community and ecosystem responses can be monitored and the results generalized across localities and disturbance types. Analyses of traits that cross trophic levels provide powerful and promising tools for validating management procedures and controlling ecosystem functions.

a b s t r a c tTemperate peatlands represent a substantial store of carbon and their degradation is a potentially significant positive feedback to climate change. The ignition of peat deposits can cause smouldering wildfires that have the potential to release substantial amounts of carbon and to cause environmental damage from which ecosystem recovery can be slow. Direct estimates of the loss of carbon due to smouldering wildfires are needed to inform global estimates of the effect of wildfire on carbon dynamics and to aid with national emissions accounting. We surveyed the effect of a severe wildfire that burnt within an afforested peatland in the Scottish Highlands during the summer of 2006. The fire ignited layers of peat which continued to burn as a sub-surface smouldering wildfire for more than a month after the initial surface fire and despite several episodes of heavy rain. The smouldering fire perimeter enclosed an area of 4.1 ha. Analysis of weather records showed that the fire coincided with unusually warm, dry conditions and a period when the Canadian Fire Weather Index system predicted both generally high danger conditions (high Fire Weather Index) and low fuel moisture content in deep organic soil layers (high Drought Code values). Remaining peat layers in the burn area had comparatively low fuel moisture contents of ca. 250% dry weight. Within the smouldering fire's perimeter, mean depth of burn was estimated at 17.5 ± 2.0 cm but ranged from 1 to 54 cm. Based on field measurements, our estimates suggested that, in total, the smouldering wildfire burnt 773 ± 120 t of organic matter corresponding to 396 ± 63 t of carbon and a carbon loss per unit area burnt of 96 ± 15 t ha À1 (9.6 ± 1.5 kg m À2 ). This corresponds to between 0.1% and 0.3% of the estimated total amount of carbon sequestered annually by UK peatlands. Our results also provide circumstantial evidence that afforestation of peatland soils, and associated site preparation, may contribute to an increased risk of peat fires. Smouldering fires are difficult to detect using remotely sensing techniques due to their low temperature and low heat release and the fact that the tree canopy remains intact for months afterwards. If similar smouldering fires are underreported in other temperate, boreal and tropical peatland regions then emissions from peatland burning may well be a substantially greater issue than currently assumed.

Summary1. Upland heaths in the UK are of significant conservation importance. Large areas are managed through prescribed burning to improve habitat and grazing for red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus, deer Cervus elaphus and sheep Ovis aries. Previous research has identified trends in vegetation development following burning, but has not linked this to variation in fire behaviour and severity. 2. We burned 15 experimental fires on an area of Calluna vulgaris-dominated moorland, and recorded pre-and post-fire vegetation structure and composition, fire behaviour characteristics, and several 'proxy measures' of fire severity. 3. We distinguished measures of fire severity, describing the immediate physical effects of burning, from the long-term ecosystem responses of substrate development and Calluna regeneration. Proxy measures of fire severity did not relate strongly to fire behaviour or ecosystem response. 4. Post-fire regeneration was strongly linked to stand age and post-fire substrate type. Fire behaviour and severity had little effect, though fire-induced ground-surface heating may promote Calluna seedling establishment. Vegetative regeneration of Calluna was extremely poor in older stands, as was seedling establishment in areas where the post-fire substrate was dominated by live or dead pleurocarpous moss mats. 5. Synthesis and applications. Significant nonlinearities exist in fire severity on heathlands, with step changes related to the depth and moisture content of moss ⁄ litter layers and peat. Younger stands, less than c. 30 cm tall, should be the focus of management if the objective is to maximize Calluna regeneration. Burning older and uneven-aged stands is discouraged except for the purposes of fire hazard management. Managers should develop landscape-level burn plans to target burning effectively and create diverse fire regimes.