In 1999, we began an assessment of raptor electrocutions on power lines in and near the Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area (NCA) in southwestern Idaho. The study will allow us to estimate electrocution rates, identify electrocution hazards, and ultimately develop a program to reduce power line-related mortality and fire hazards in the NCA. This year, we produced a distribution line map of the study area, selected study segments, and began searching for dead raptors along 19 segments totaling 61.2 linear km. Study segments are located in the relatively undeveloped interior of the NCA, and along the borders and private inholdings of the NCA where agriculture and associated power line developments are common. From September-November, we visited all study segments to remove remains of birds killed prior to this study. We found partially intact skeletons, scattered bones, and feathers of at least 19 birds during these searches. In December, we began sampling for recent kills and found five dead birds. Of the 24 birds found during both surveys, we were able to identify 6 common ravens (Corvus corax), 2 red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), 2 American kestrels (Falco sparverius), 1 northern harrier (Circus cyaneus), 1 golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), and 1 barn owl (Tyto alba). Only the golden eagle showed clear signs of electrocution, but most remains were too old to establish cause of death. All 24 sets of remains were found under 21 poles. We found dead birds under 18 tangent poles and 3 poles in deadend and corner positions. Pole-top configurations included simple crossarm, underbuilt, compact, and H-frame designs. Additional hardware items on many poles included exposed jumper wires, transformers, capacitors, and electrical switches of several kinds. In 2000, we will continue sampling study segments each month until a full year of sampling has been completed. This will allow detection of seasonal differences in electrocution rates during three raptor concentration periods-nesting, postfledging, and wintering.

Sagebrush steppe communities with impoverished although mostly native herbaceous layers may represent the best of what's left of the sagebrush steppe ecosystem in North America. The other 75% of this ecosystem has been lost or substantially changed by the combined forces of development, agriculture, fire, and livestock grazing. Can we revitalize these impoverished communities effectively and what's causing these communities to remain static over decades? This project assessed several approaches for returning the vigor and productivity to a Wyoming big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass community in central Idaho. I took an experimental approach to assess restoration techniques. The project occurred on a single mapped soil unit within a single pasture of the Bureau of Land Management's Upper Pahsimeroi grazing allotment. Sample units all occurred on generally flat sites (slope = 0-5%) and similar elevations (2010-2075 m [6595-6810 ft]). Fifteen 4-ha (10 ac) sample units were positioned randomly within the project area prior to treatments being applied, and treatments (controls, mechanical crushing only, and mechanical crushing with seeding of native grasses) were assigned randomly to sample units. Half the area of each sample unit was fenced to exclude livestock. Each treatment was replicated 5 times. The total area encompassed by the sample units was 150 ha with 30 ha treated with mechanical crushing. Mechanical crushing of sagebrush and other shrubs was accomplished by 2 passes of a Lawson aerator over each treatment area during November 2003 after snow had fallen. A rangeland drill was used to seed a mixture of 90% bluebunch wheatgrass and 10% Indian ricegrass (at a rate of 11-13 kg/ha [10-12 lbs/ac]) immediately after crushing was completed. Sampling occurred in the year prior to application of treatments (2003) and in 3 subsequent years following treatment-2005, 2007, and 2012. Cover of plants, exposed soil, biological crust, and litter was the response metric for assessing treatment effects. Cover was estimated using 10 pointinterception transects in each treatment combination. Cover of Wyoming big sagebrush on control sites, both open to livestock grazing and closed, increased slightly (from 17-19% in 2003 to 23-25% in 2012). Mechanical crushing reduced Wyoming big sagebrush cover 63%from an average of 19% in 2003 (range: 11-32%) to an average of 7% in 2005 (range: 2-12%). By 2012, 9 growing seasons post-treatment, average big sagebrush cover had increased to 11% (range: 1-20%); an increase from 2005 of 42%. Crushing & seeding resulted in substantial increases in bluebunch wheatgrass cover from about 1-2% cover in 2003 to an average of 33% in 2012. The reduction in competition from sagebrush apparently resulted in increases in squirreltail cover (particularly in areas open to livestock grazing) and increases in needle and thread cover (particularly in areas protected from livestock grazing). The cover of exposed soil in areas treated with crushing fell below pretreatment levels on most treatments (except contro...

Many rare plant species occur in small, isolated populations. This can result in genetic drift and inbreeding which may lead to low genetic diversity. Mirabilis macfarlanei, a rare plant, is restricted to 19 relatively isolated populations along the Snake and Salmon River Canyons. We used enzyme electrophoresis to estimate genetic diversity, levels of gene flow, and clonal structure in eight selected populations of M macfarlanei on the Salmon River. The analysis indicated that levels of genetic diversity were lower than values found with other plant allozyme data with similar life history traits reviewed in published papers. The measure of genetic differentiation among populations, F ST , was 0.263 indicating low gene flow. We found high genetic similarity among populations using genetic distance values. Differentiation among populations was not closely related to the distances among populations. The clonal maps of Cody Draw, McKinzie Creek and Skookumchuck populations suggested diverse clonal growth forms with more widespread clones at Skookumchuck. counties: Idaho Co., Idaho and Wallowa Co., Oregon. Most populations are isolated by more than 3 kilometers. These relatively small, isolated populations are found growing in the steep, basaltic canyons of the Snake, Salmon and Imnaha Rivers (Fig. 1). MacFarlane's Four O'clock is a long-lived perennial forb that reproduces sexually and clonally from a thick woody rhizome that sends out many shoots (collectively called a genet). Current population estimates range from approximately 7,000 stems (ramets) at Long Gulch to 2 stems at WestKurry 2 (Craig Johnson, 1995 and personal observation). Seven of the 19 populations probably contain fewer than 150 stems. The size of the clones is not known but it is possible that smaller populations are comprised of only one or a few clones (one genet). Such small, isolated populations of MacFarlane's Four O'Clock are likely to have low genetic diversity in comparison to widespread species. Population sizes vary greatly between years (Craig Johnson, BLM reports and personal observation). Some individuals appear to remain dormant during dryer years and grow only during years when adequate rainfall is received in the early spring (personal communication, Craig Johnson, BLM). Such fluctuations in population sizes can potentially act as bottlenecks during poor growth years. If some genets do not grow during bad years, seeds produced may have reduced numbers of alleles and lower genetic diversity. We used starch gel electrophoresis to address the following objectives: 1) estimate the amount of genetic variability within populations; 2) measure the amount of genetic differentiation among populations; 3) estimate levels of gene flow among populations, and 4) provide a clonal map using multilocus enzyme markers to infer individual genotypes. The patterns of genetic diversity and gene flow for M macfarlanei were then compared to published data on endemics with small, isolated populations and other clonal plants. MATERIALS and METHODS Sampling ...

Six raptor species were identified at 20 survey points on the lower Salmon and Snake Rivers between 29 March and 7 April 1996. Golden eagles {Aquila chrysateos) were the most frequently observed raptor (0.73 birds/hour) followed by red-tailed hawks {Buteo jamaicensis) (0.52 birds/hour), and American kestrels (Falco sparverius) (0.36 birds/hour). Prairie falcons {Falco mexicanus), northern harriers {Circus cyaneus), and bald eagles {Haliaeetus leucocephalus) were less frequently observed. No peregrine falcons {Falco peregrinus) were observed.Eleven species of diurnal and 2 species of nocturnal raptors have been documented in the 3 years this survey has been conducted (1993, 1994, and 1996). In addition to the 6 species observed in 1996, raptors observed in previous years include: turkey vultures {Cathartes aura), osprey {Pandion halliaetus), sharp-shinned hawk {Accipiter striates), Coopers hawk {A. cooperii), northern goshawk {A. genrilis), great-horned owl {Bubo virginianus), and western screech owl {Otus kennicotti).Golden eagles were the most common and red-tailed hawks the second most common species every year. In 1993 and 1996, American kestrels were the third and northern harriers the fourth most frequently observed species. In 1994, northern harriers were more common than American kestrels. In 1993, 1994, and 1996, overall raptor abundance tended to be highest in the upper portion of the survey area, from Hammer Creek to Cougar Canyon on the Salmon River. Observation rates were more variable among points than among years.Therefore, conducting the survey either annually or for several consecutive years at 5-year intervals may increase likelihood of detecting changes in relative abundance of common raptor species as compared to conducting the survey once every 2-5 years.No peregrine falcons have been detected during the 3 years of the survey. Mapping historical and potential nesting habitat and conducting ground-based surveys focused on peregrine falcons during April and/or June for several years is recommended to increase likelihood of detecting this species. We recommend conducting the multi-species survey again for 3 consecutive years starting in 1999. If variability is similar to that observed 1993-1996, the following changes in relative abundance could be detected: golden eagles ±14%, redtailed hawks ±62%, American kestrels ± 112%.