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While the significance of principals’ roles is widely recognized, and the impactful behaviors of principals are empirically delineated, little is known about whether principals spend time in an impactful way, whether principals’ time use varies across different school contexts, or whether principals’ time use is related to critical school conditions and outcomes such as school climate and student outcomes. We made an attempt to respond to these questions by conducting a secondary analysis of Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study data. We found that American middle school principals’ job continues to be administration-bound, spontaneous and fragmented. In general, American principals could be classified into two major clusters: Eclectic Principals versus Balanced Principals. Higher school poverty, higher concentration of English language learners and more urbanity were associated with a higher incidence of Eclectic Principals. Nevertheless, except for teacher engagement, schools led by different clusters of principals did not differ in terms of parent/student engagement or student behavior. Although schools led by Balanced Principals tend to outperform those led by Eclectic Principals, this achievement difference was not statistically significant at .05 level. With a large national representative sample, the study fills knowledge gaps associated with small samples and limited attention to situational determinants of principal leadership activity.

National trends and goals have pushed beyond the dropout crisis and are now focused on raising the percentage of graduates prepared for college and career. This study examined a longitudinal cohort ( n = 6443) of students in an urban, public school district in order to explore how districts and communities can redirect off-track high school students. The researchers explored timing to first-time college readiness in English and math using Event History Analysis. Variables under investigation included gender, first-generation college student status, college aspiration, enrollment in college preparatory courses, and participation in organized, extracurricular, college preparatory activities. Results indicated a student’s chances of being on the college-ready trajectory were highest in the 8 th grade. Findings also revealed a positive association between higher parent education levels and college preparatory course enrollment, particularly in math.

PurposeTo advance the study of principal time use (PTU), the purpose of this study is to report findings from a systematic review of PTU research. In addition to identifying common findings, this study also examined the supporting evidence and methodologies of PTU studies. From this dual approach, this study specified the evidence that supports claims about PTU, as well as identified areas requiring future examination.Design/methodology/approachA systematic reference review process considered 5,746 potential PTU manuscripts. The inclusion criteria identified 55 studies published between 1920 and 2015. This review synthesized data pertaining to the methodologies and findings of PTU research.FindingsFindings from studies conducted across decades indicated that principals worked extensive hours. Moreover, the workdays of principals consisted of brief and unrelated activities, most often focused on noninstructional tasks. Contrary to common hypotheses, studies indicated that PTU dedicated to administrative tasks exhibited positive correlations with educational outcomes. However, claims about PTU have been derived from samples overrepresented by large urban school districts and limited periods of observation.Practical implicationsFuture studies should implement diversified sampling strategies and extended observation periods. For principal preparation programs, the results indicated an opportunity for increased instruction on time management skills.Originality/valueThis systematic review identifies the overlooked history of the research and specifies the evidence that supports common claims about PTU, which provides empirically derived guidance for future PTU studies.

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