The authors propose a heuristic model of the social outcomes of childhood brain disorder that draws on models and methods from both the emerging field of social cognitive neuroscience and the study of social competence in developmental psychology/psychopathology. The heuristic model characterizes the relationships between social adjustment, peer interactions and relationships, social problem solving and communication, social-affective and cognitive-executive processes, and their neural substrates. The model is illustrated by research on a specific form of childhood brain disorder, traumatic brain injury. The heuristic model may promote research regarding the neural and cognitiveaffective substrates of children's social development. It also may engender more precise methods of measuring impairments and disabilities in children with brain disorder and suggest ways to promote their social adaptation. Surprisingly little is known about the extent, basis, and consequences of the social problems associated with neurological dys-function and brain insults occurring during childhood, despite the significant long-term implications of social development for children's functioning at home, in school, and in the community (Parker, Rubin, Erath, Wojslawowicz, & Buskirk, 2006;Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006). Until recently, the lack of measurement tools and articulated models of social functioning has limited our ability to address social outcomes in children with brain disorder. The development of more sensitive measures and explicit models of social functioning would help researchers and clinicians to target children with brain disorders for further study and intervention.Now is an excellent time to consider social outcomes in children with brain disorder. The emerging field of social cognitive neuroscience provides a critical perspective on the social impact of childhood brain disorder. Social neuroscience not only supplies tools needed to better understand the neural substrates and social-cognitive processes associated with social functioning, but also provides a foundation for a multilevel, integrative analysis of the social difficulties arising from neurological insults (Brothers, 1990;Cacioppo, Berntson, Sheridan, & McClintock, 2000;Moss & Damasio, 2001;Ochsner & Lieberman, 2001;Posner, Rothbart, & Gerardi-Caulton, 2001). Although social neuroscience to date has focused primarily on adults, in part because of the inability to study the developing brain in vivo, this no longer need be the case. With contemporary neuroimaging, various elegant methods are available that can inform researchers about brain development and neuropathology in the study of social behavior in children with brain disorder (Toga & Thompson, 2005).The methods and models derived from social neuroscience will be particularly powerful when combined with those associated with the study of social competence in developmental psychology and developmental psychopathology Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006). The latter approaches reflect a development...

The process of psychological adjustment to breast cancer was examined at diagnosis and at 3-and 6-month follow-ups in a sample of 80 women with Stage I-Stage IV breast cancer. At diagnosis, symptoms of anxiety/depression were predicted by low dispositional optimism, and this path was partially mediated by use of emotion-focused disengagement coping. Younger age also was predictive of anxiety/depression symptoms at time of diagnosis, and this relationship was fully mediated by magnitude of intrusive thoughts. At 3 months, changes in anxiety/depression symptoms were predicted only by intrusive thoughts. At 6 months, low dispositional optimism reemerged as a significant predictor of changes in anxiety/depression and again was partially mediated by the use of emotion-focused disengagement coping. Independent effects for problem-focused engagement and disengagement and emotionfocused engagement coping were also found at 6 months. Implications of these data for psychosocial interventions with breast cancer patients are highlighted.

Despite methodological limitations, research indicates a strong need for sibling support. Clinical recommendations include identifying at-risk siblings and developing interventions to facilitate family communication and increase siblings' social support, cancer-related knowledge, and treatment involvement. Future longitudinal studies focusing on mechanisms and moderators of siblings' adjustment would inform timing and targets of psychosocial care.

In this study, evidence is provided for supporting siblings as a standard of care in pediatric oncology. Using Medline, PsycInfo, and CINAHL, a systematic search of articles published over the past two decades about siblings of children with cancer was conducted. A total of 125 articles, which were primarily descriptive studies, were evaluated by the four investigators using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria. There is moderate-quality evidence, as well as support from community stakeholders, to justify a strong recommendation that siblings of children with cancer should be provided with psychosocial services and that parents and professionals are advised about how to meet siblings' needs. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2015;62:S750-S804. C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Key words: adjustment; cancer; intervention; pediatric; sibling INTRODUCTIONSiblings are exposed to significant stress when a child is diagnosed with cancer. Concern about the ill child, disruptions in family roles and routines, decreased contact with family members, and additional demands for caregiving or other responsibilities in the home are common. [1,2] In some cases, siblings are also called upon to serve as a donor for stem cell transplant, which can introduce other ethical and psychosocial concerns. [3] Taken together, these unique challenges leave siblings of children with cancer at risk for acute and long-term psychosocial difficulties. However, there are no current evidence-based standards for the supportive care of siblings of children with cancer.Although severe psychopathology is rare, several reviews suggest that some siblings exhibit symptoms of anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress; lower quality of life and healthcare utilization; and disruption to academic and social functioning. [1,2,4,5] Most difficulties improve over the first year after diagnosis, but they may resurface or worsen with declines in the ill child's health or death.[6] Siblings can also demonstrate resilient outcomes, such as posttraumatic growth. [4,7] This variability in adjustment underscores the need for accurate screening to identify risk and protective factors and to provide appropriate services for siblings vulnerable to difficulties. Unfortunately, siblings have unmet needs and psychosocial support may be limited. [8,9] Further, in a large survey of professionals from three pediatric oncology organizations, only 25% reported that they provide psychosocial services to siblings.[10] Thus, it is critically important to establish evidence-based standards of care for siblings of children with cancer in efforts to encourage the provision of more consistent and comprehensive services for this population. METHODSThis review was performed as a part of the collaborative effort, Standards for Psychosocial Care of Children with Cancer and Their Families. A full description of the methods used to develop each standard is in the introduction to this special issue.[11] The literature search for this standard used three ...