We have utilized telescopic near‐infrared spectra and multispectral images of the Moon provided by the Galileo and Clementine missions to determine the distribution and modes of occurrence of pure anorthosite. Anorthosites have now been identified in all portions of the nearside, including the site of the putative Procellarum basin. Anorthosite is associated with the rings of Orientale, Grimaldi, Humorum, Nectaris, Nubium, Mutus‐Vlaq, and Balmer basins. Major portions of the inner rings of Grimaldi, Humorum, Crisium, Orientale, and Nectaris are composed of pure anorthosite. The large spatial extent of these anorthosites appears to rule out an origin in the upper portions of discrete differentiated Mg‐suite plutons. In every instance, the anorthosites were exposed from beneath a shallower near‐surface layer of more pyroxene‐rich material. More mafic material also occurs beneath the pure anorthosite unit. Large expanses of the northern farside exhibit very low FeO values. This region contains abundant anorthosite and stands in stark contrast to the mafic composition exhibited by the interior of the South Pole‐Aitken basin (SPA). The distribution of compositional units on large portions of the lunar farside as well as the southern portion of the lunar nearside appears to be largely attributable to the SPA impact event. The distribution and modes of occurrence of anorthosites clearly indicate that a thick, global layer of anorthosite is present at various depths beneath most portions of the lunar surface. This anorthosite layer dominated the upper portion of the primordial crust and was produced by plagioclase flotation in the global magma ocean.

[1] The Mini-RF radar instrument on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft mapped both lunar poles in two different RF wavelengths (complete mapping at 12.6 cm S-band and partial mapping at 4.2 cm X-band) in two look directions, removing much of the ambiguity of previous Earth-and spacecraft-based radar mapping of the Moon's polar regions. The poles are typical highland terrain, showing expected values of radar cross section (albedo) and circular polarization ratio (CPR). Most fresh craters display high values of CPR in and outside the crater rim; the pattern of these CPR distributions is consistent with high levels of wavelength-scale surface roughness associated with the presence of block fields, impact melt flows, and fallback breccia. A different class of polar crater exhibits high CPR only in their interiors, interiors that are both permanently dark and very cold (less than 100 K). Application of scattering models developed previously suggests that these anomalously high-CPR deposits exhibit behavior consistent with the presence of water ice. If this interpretation is correct, then both poles may contain several hundred million tons of water in the form of relatively "clean" ice, all within the upper couple of meters of the lunar surface. The existence of significant water ice deposits enables both long-term human habitation of the Moon and the creation of a permanent cislunar space transportation system based upon the harvest and use of lunar propellant.

[1] We present new polarimetric radar data for the surface of the north pole of the Moon acquired with the Mini-SAR experiment onboard India's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft. Between mid-February and mid-April, 2009, Mini-SAR mapped more than 95% of the areas polewards of 80°latitude at a resolution of 150 meters. The north polar region displays backscatter properties typical for the Moon, with circular polarization ratio (CPR) values in the range of 0.1-0.3, increasing to over 1.0 for young primary impact craters. These higher CPR values likely reflect surface roughness associated with these fresh features. In contrast, some craters in this region show elevated CPR in their interiors, but not exterior to their rims. Almost all of these features are in permanent sun shadow and correlate with proposed locations of polar ice modeled on the basis of Lunar Prospector neutron data. These relations are consistent with deposits of water ice in these craters.

[1] We introduce a new technique derived from the classical Stokes parameters for analysis of polarimetric radar astronomical data. This decomposition is based on m (the degree of polarization) and chi (the Poincaré ellipticity parameter). Analysis of the crater Byrgius A demonstrates how m-chi can more easily differentiate materials within ejecta deposits and their relative thicknesses. We use Goldschmidt crater to demonstrate how m-chi can differentiate coherent deposits of water ice. Goldschmidt crater floor is found to be consistent with single bounce Bragg scattering suggesting the absence of water ice and further corroborating adsorbed H to mineral grains or an H 2 O frost as plausible explanations for a H 2 O/OH detection by near-infrared instruments.

The Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) measures the backscattered energy of the returning altimetric laser pulse at its wavelength of 1064 nm, and these data are used to map the reflectivity of the Moon at zero-phase angle with a photometrically uniform data set. Global maps have been produced at 4 pixels per degree (about 8 km at the equator) and 2 km resolution within 20°latitude of each pole. The zero-phase geometry is insensitive to lunar topography, so these data enable characterization of subtle variations in lunar albedo, even at high latitudes where such measurements are not possible with the Sun as the illumination source. The geometric albedo of the Moon at 1064 nm was estimated from these data with absolute calibration derived from the Kaguya Multiband Imager and extrapolated to visual wavelengths. The LOLA estimates are within 2σ of historical measurements of geometric albedo. No consistent latitude-dependent variations in reflectance are observed, suggesting that solar wind does not dominate space weathering processes that modify lunar reflectance. The average normal albedo of the Moon is found to be much higher than that of Mercury consistent with prior measurements, but the normal albedo of the lunar maria is similar to that of Mercury suggesting a similar abundance of space weathering products. Regions within permanent shadow in the polar regions are found to be more reflective than polar surfaces that are sometimes illuminated. Limiting analysis to data with slopes less than 10°eliminates variations in reflectance due to mass wasting and shows a similar increased reflectivity within permanent polar shadow. Steep slopes within permanent shadow are also more reflective than similar slopes that experience at least some illumination. Water frost and a reduction in effectiveness of space weathering are offered as possible explanations for the increased reflectivity of permanent shadow; porosity is largely ruled out as the sole explanation. The south polar crater Shackleton is found to be among the most reflective craters in its size range globally but is not the most reflective, so mass wasting cannot be ruled out as a cause for the crater's anomalous reflectance. Models of the abundance of ice needed to account for the reflectance anomaly range from 3 to 14% by weight or area depending on assumptions regarding the effects of porosity on reflectance and whether ice is present as patches or is well mixed in the regolith. If differences in nanophase iron abundances are responsible for the anomaly, the permanently shadowed regions have between 50 and 80% the abundance of nanophase iron in mature lunar soil.