We agree that the method of computing fractals described by Mark (1984) is both more appropriate and more informative than the method we used (Bradbury and Reichelt, 1983). In this note, we argue that it is the departure from strict self-similarity in real structures that gives them their ecological interest. We support these arguments with the analysis of new finer-resolution data from the previously studied coral reef which suggests that reefs are extremely smooth structures at the scale of coral colonies, and that this smoothness is reduced at both finer a n d coarser scales.David Mark (1984) has voiced what we ourselves have also realized. The method of computing fractals that h e describes (Mandelbrot, 1977;Goodchild, 1980) is both more appropriate and more informative than the method we used (Bradbury and Reichelt, 1983). However, we feel that there is a risk that Mark's discussion may leave some readers with the impression that lack of self-similarity invalidates the whole fractal approach to ecosystem studies. In this note we wish to emphasize that this is not so; it is precisely the lack of self-similarity that is of greatest ecological relevance and interest.Problems with variograms. The variogram approach to fractal estimation assumes that one is dealing with a continuous function W(t) of some independent variable t. In this context, the only possible interpretation of t is 'straight-line' distance along a transect, while W must represent the corresponding distance measured along the reef surface. Fractal estimates are then based on the variance of increments where T = step length used (Berry and Lewis, 1980). The chief practical difficulty is that in the reef transects, our steps with dividers were made along the reef surface, whereas T i n this context represents increments in the straight line distance. A further problem is Ecological interpretation of fractal dimensions. True fractals are abstractions; no real-world phenomenon is self-similar at all scales. Individual biological (and other) processes always operate over a restricted range of scales. However, the geometric properties of the patterns they produce, if extended over all possible scales, would define true fractal curves. Thus estimates of fractal dimension made over the restricted range of scales do reflect the geometric properties of the processes. Peaks and dips in the value D of this 'fractal index' (our term for the curve showing estimates of fractal dimension against scale) indicate shifts in the sources of biological pattern. The fractal index is thus a statistical tool for examining patterns and processes in coral communities.Estimates of D for real processes (whether obtained by the variogram or ratio method) may stray outside the range 1.0 to 2.0 in certain circumstances. Such transgressions should not b e interpreted as evidence that the application of fractal theory is not valid. They might, on the contrary, provide useful information about the phenomenon concerned, for they may indicate limits to the range over ...

Since ecosystem organization is a qualitative phenomenon, ecological pattern and process, its static and dynamic manifestations, are best captured as qualitative models. However, ecological methodology is overwhelmingly quantitative in orientation -a reflection not only of the transfer to ecology of the physical sciences paradigm, but also of the paucity of qualitative techniques. We argue that avenues now exist for the rapid exploitation of the qualitative approach. This holds the potential both of modelling ecological systems in terms of intrinsically relevant variables and of creating an independent ecological paradigm. THE PROBLEMThe nature of biological phenomena Pattern and process are dual concepts in biology: they are static and dynamic reflections of organization in biological systems. Biological patterns emerge through biological processes and biological processes are rich in patterns.In this essay, we will explore the qualitative aspects of this duality in the context of marine ecology, since much biological organization and, hence, many biological patterns and processes are essentially qualitative in nature. We will seek to show that much significant pattern and process may be approached directly through appropriate qualitative technique, rather than indirectly through awkward quantitative mapping. This is not to reject completely the quantitative approach to biology but to suggest that it is a subset of a more general analytical approach. We will argue that the set of essential elements -a conceptual programme -of a qualitative approach to biological pattern and process now exists. We will support our argument by appeal to our recent qualitative studies on the structure and function of the complex, high diversity ecosystems of tropical coral reefs. Then we O Inter-Research/Printed in F. R. Germany will suggest that while the elements of such a conceptual program exist -an expanding repertoire of tools for capturing qualitative data and identifying qualitative variables, as well as theories about the qualitative behaviour of biological systems -there is now an urgent need to integrate these elements into a coherent qualitative approach to pattern and process in marine ecology.